Address: AIG Consultants, 8070 Beechmont Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45255
Country: United States
Phone: 1 (513) 474-2232
Fax: 1 (513) 474-2655
Education: BS, 1973, Utah State University; MS, 1977, Temple University
The printing, commercial photography and reproduction industries are important worldwide in terms of their economic significance. The printing industry is very diverse in technologies and in size of enterprises. However, regardless of size as measured by production volume, the different printing technologies described in this chapter are the most common. In terms of production volume, there are a limited number of large-scale operations, but many small ones. From the economic perspective, the printing industry is one of the largest industries and generates annual revenues of at least US$500 billion worldwide. Similarly, the commercial photography industry is diverse, with a limited number of large-volume and many small-volume operations. Photofinishing volume is about equally divided between the large and small-volume operations. The commercial photographic market generates annual revenues of approximately US$60 billion worldwide, with photofinishing operations comprising approximately 40% of this total. The reproduction industry, which consists of smaller-volume operations with combined annual revenues of about US$27 billion, generates close to 2 trillion copies annually. In addition, reproduction and duplication services on an even smaller scale are provided onsite at most organizations and companies.
Health, environmental and safety issues in these industries are evolving in response to substitutions with potentially less hazardous materials, new industrial hygiene control strategies, and the advent of new technologies, such as the introduction of digital technologies, electronic imaging and computers. Many historically important health and safety issues (e.g., solvents in the printing industry or formaldehyde as a stabilizer in photoprocessing solutions) will not be issues in the future due to material substitution or other risk management strategies. Nevertheless, new health, environmental and safety issues will arise that will have to be addressed by health and safety professionals. This suggests the continued importance of health and environmental monitoring as part of an effective risk management strategy in the printing, commercial photography and reproduction industries.
In 1993, the worldwide production of electricity was 12.3 trillion kilowatt hours (United Nations 1995). (A kilowatt hour is the amount of electricity needed to light ten 100-watt bulbs for 1 hour.) One can judge the magnitude of this endeavour by considering data from the United States, which alone produced 25% of the total energy. The US electric utility industry, a mix of public and privately owned entities, generated 3.1 trillion kilowatt hours in 1993, using more than 10,000 generating units (US Department of Energy 1995). The portion of this industry that is owned by private investors employs 430,000 people in electric operations and maintenance, with revenues of US$200 billion annually.
Electricity is generated in plants which utilize fossil fuel (petroleum, natural gas or coal) or use nuclear energy or hydropower. In 1990, for example, 75% of France’s electrical power came from nuclear power stations. In 1993, 62% of the electricity generated worldwide came from fossil fuels, 19% from hydropower, and 18% from nuclear power. Other reusable sources of energy such as wind, solar, geothermal or biomass account for only a small proportion of world electric production. From generating stations, electricity is then transmitted over interconnected networks or grids to local distribution systems and on through to the consumer.
The workforce that makes all of this possible tends to be primarily male and to possess a high degree of technical skill and knowledge of “the system”. The tasks that these workers undertake are quite diverse, having elements in common with the construction, manufacturing, materials handling, transportation and communications industries. The next few articles describe some of these operations in detail. The articles on electric maintenance standards and environmental concerns also highlight major US government regulatory initiatives that affect the electric utility industry.
There are two basic types of rubber used in the rubber industry: natural and synthetic. A number of different synthetic rubber polymers are used to make a wide variety of rubber products (see table 1). Natural rubber is mostly produced in Southeast Asia, whereas synthetic rubber is mostly produced in the industrialized countries—the United States, Japan, Western Europe and Eastern Europe. Brazil is the only developing country with a significant synthetic rubber industry.
Table 1. Some important rubber polymers
Type of rubber/ |
Production |
Properties |
Common uses |
|
Natural rubber |
Thailand |
1,501 |
General purpose; not oil-resistant, swollen by solvents; subject to weathering by oxygen, ozone, |
Tyres, shock mounts, seals, couplings, bridge and building bearings, footwear, hoses, conveyor belts, moulded products, linings, rolls, gloves, condoms, medical devices, adhesives, carpet backing, thread, foam |
Polyisoprene (IR) |
US |
47 |
General purpose; synthetic natural rubber, similar properties |
See natural rubber above. |
Styrene-butadiene (SBR) |
US |
920 |
General purpose; Second World War natural rubber substitute; poor oil/solvent resistance |
Tyres (75%), conveyor belts, sponge, moulded goods, footwear, hoses, roll coverings, adhesives, waterproofing, latex carpet backing, foam products |
Polybutadiene (BR) |
US |
465 |
Poor oil/solvent resistance; subject to weathering; high resilience, abrasion resistance and low |
Tyres, shoes, conveyor belts, transmission belts, toy superballs |
Butyl (IIR) |
US |
130 |
Low gas permeability; resistant to heat, acid, polar liquids; not resistant to oil, solvents; moderate weathering |
Inner tubes, tire curing bladders, caulking and sealants, cable insulation, vibration isolators, pond liners and roofing membranes, |
Ethylene-propylene/ |
US |
261 |
Low-temperature flexibility; resistant to weathering and heat but not oil, solvents; excellent electrical properties |
Wire and cable jackets; extruded weather stripping and seals; moulded products; isolation mounts; liner sheeting for grain storage, roofing, ponds, ditches, landfill |
Polychloroprene (CR) |
US |
105 |
Resistant to oil, flame, heat and weather |
Wire and cable jackets, hoses, belts, conveyor belts, footwear, wet suits, coated fabrics and inflatable products, extrusions, adhesives, |
Nitrile (NBR) |
US |
64 |
Resistant to oil, solvents, vegetable oil; swollen by polar solvents such as ketones |
Sealants, fuel-resistant hose linings and gaskets, roll coverings, conveyor belts, shoe soles, gloves, adhesives, oil-drilling equipment |
Silicone (MQ) |
US |
95 |
Stable at high/low temperatures; resistant to oil, solvents, weathering; physiologically and chemically inert |
Wire and cable insulation, seals, adhesives, gaskets, specialty moulded and extruded goods, gas masks and respirators, food and medical tubing, surgical implants |
Polysulphide (OT) |
US |
20 |
Resistant to oil, solvents, low temperature, weathering; low gas permeability |
Roller covering, hose liner, gaskets, moulded goods, sealants, gas meter diaphragms, glass sealants, solid rocket propellant binder |
Reclaimed rubber |
– |
– |
Shorter polymer chains; easier processing; less mixing time and power consumption; lower tensile strength and lower cost |
Tyres, inner tubes, floor mats, mechanical goods, adhesives, rubberized asphalt |
Source: Production figures abstracted from Stanford Research Institute data.
Tyres and tyre products account for approximately 60% of synthetic rubber use and 75% of natural rubber consumption (Greek 1991), employing about half a million workers worldwide. Important non-tyre uses of rubber include automotive belts and hoses, gloves, condoms and rubber footwear.
In recent years, there has been a globalization of the rubber industry. This labour-intensive industry has grown in developing countries. Table 2 shows worldwide natural and synthetic rubber consumption for 1993.
Table 2. Worldwide rubber consumption for 1993
Region |
Synthetic rubber |
Natural rubber |
North America |
2,749 |
999 |
Western Europe |
2,137 |
930 |
Asia and Oceania |
1,849 |
2,043 |
Latin America |
575 |
260 |
Central Europe |
215 |
65 |
Commonwealth of Independent States |
1,665 |
100 |
Middle East and Africa |
124 |
162 |
China and Asia* |
453 |
750 |
Total |
9,767 |
5,309 |
*Includes China, North Korea and Viet Nam.
Source: International Institute of Synthetic Rubber Producers 1994.
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