Health and Environmental Issues

Sunday, 17 July 2011 22:31

Abbreviations and Acronyms

The following abbreviations and acronyms are used in this Encyclopaedia, but the list is not exhaustive. Chemical abbreviations, for example, are not given here. Standard abbreviations for journal names are not listed. The international system of units of measurements and its abbreviations are outlined in a separate section of this chapter.

A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z

A

AA Alcoholics Anonymous

AAA Academics and Workers Action in Denmark

AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science

AAO American Academy of Otolaryngology

AARP American Association of Retired Persons

AAS Atom absorption spectroscopy

ABP Androgen binding protein

ABRIE General Business Investigation and Risk Inventory and Evaluation

ABS Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene

AC Alternating current

ACE Angiotensin converting enzyme

ACFTU All-China Confederation of Trade Unions

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

ACHE Acetylcholinesterase

ACOG American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists

ACS American Cancer Society

ACS American Chemical Society

ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormones

ACTU Australian Council of Trade Unions

ADA Americans with Disabilities Act

ADH Anti-diuretic hormone

ADI Acceptable daily intake

ADR European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road

AEC Atomic Energy Commission (US)

AEL Accessible emission limits

AFA Association of Flight Attendants

AFB Acid-fast bacilli

AFFF Aqueous film-forming foam

AFL-CIO American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations

AFNOR Association française de normalisation

AFSCME American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees

AGI All-glass impingers

AGR Advanced gas-cooled reactors

AHA American Hospital Association

AHCPR Agency for Health Care Policy and Research

AI Alveolar-interstitial

AI Artificial insemination

AIA Asbestos International Association

AIA Aerospace Industries Association

AIChE American Institute of Chemical Engineers

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

AISI American Iron and Steel Institute

ALA Aminolaevulinic acid

ALA-D Aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase

ALARA As low as reasonably achievable

ALASEHT Latino-American Association of Occupational Safety and Hygiene

ALA-U Delta-aminolaevulinic acid in urine

ALI Annual limits on intake

ALL Acute lymphocytic leukaemia

ALM Acral lentiginous me

AM Amplitude modulation

AMD Occupational Medical Service

AML Acute myelocytic leukaemia

AMS Acute mountain sickness

ANA Antinuclear antibodies

ANFO Ammonium nitrate fuel oil

ANLL Acute non-lymphocytic leukaemia

ANSI American National Standards Institute

AOEC Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics

APA American Psychiatric Association

APA American Psychological Association

APEC Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation

APELL Awareness and preparedness for emergencies at local level

APF Association des paralysés de France

APF Assigned protection factor

APHA American Public Health Association

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

API American Petroleum Institute

APPR Army package power reactor

APR Accident prevention regulation

ARDS Acute respiratory distress syndrome

ARET Accelerated Reduction/ Elimination of Toxics

AS Australian Standard

ASA American Society of Anesthetists

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers

ASL Angiosarcoma of the liver

ASP Amnesic shellfish poisoning

ASSE American Society of Safety Engineers

ASSTAS Association pour la santé et la sécurité du travail, secteur affaires sociales

AST Above-ground storage tankage

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

ATA Alaska Trappers Association

ATBC Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene

ATM Automatic teller machines

ATS American Thoracic Society

ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

ATV All-terrain vehicle

AUC Area under the curve

AUDIT Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test

AWT Computer’s feedback on the average time workers take processing each customer call

B

BACT Best available control technology

BAD Occupational Medical Service of the Berufsgenossenschaften

BAEP Brainstem auditory potentials

BAL British anti-Lewisite

BAL Bronchoalveolar lavage

BAT Biological tolerance value

BAU German federal safety institute

BBP Bloodborne pathogens

BC Before Christ

BCF Bulked continuous filament

BCG Bacille of Calmette and Guérin

BEI Biological exposure index

BEIR Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation

BG The German Berufsgenossenschaften

BGMG Berufsgenossenschaften Measuring System Hazardous Substances

BGW Berufsgenossenschaft für Gesundheitsdienst und Wohlfahrtspflege

BIA Berufsgenossenschaften Association and their Institute for Occupational Safety

BL Biosafety Level

BLDSC British Library Document Supply Centre

BLEVE Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion

BLS Bureau of Labor Statistics (US)

BM Behaviour modification

BMD Benchmark dose

BMI Body mass index

BMP Best Management Practice

BMRC British Medical Research Council

BNA Bureau of National Affairs (US)

BOD Biochemical oxygen demand

BOF Basic oxygen furnace

BP British Petroleum

BPPV Benign positional paroxysmal vertigo

BPR Business process reengineering

BRF Basic risk factors

BRI Building-related illness

BRS Bortner Rating Scale

BS British Standard

BSE Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

BSI British Standards Institute

BTPS Body temperature and ambient pressure

BUPA British United Provident Association

BWR Boiling water reactor

C

CAD Computer-aided design

CAL Chronic airflow limitation

CAM Continuous air monitors

CAM Chorioallantoic membrane

CAM Computer-aided manufacturing

CAMAC Computer Assisted Measurement and Control Association

CAMP Cyclical adenosinm onophosphate

CAT Computerized axial tomography

CATI Computer-aided telephone interview

CBA Cost benefit analysis

CBC Complete blood count

CBV Central blood volume

CC Closing capacity

CCHF Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever

CCITT Comité consultatif international des organisations téléphoniques et télégraphiques

CCOHS Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety

CCPS Center for Chemical Process Safety

CD Committee draft

CD-ROM Compact Disc- Read Only Memory

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)

CDT Cumulative trauma disorders

CE European Community

CEA Cost effectiveness analysis

CEC Commission of European Communities

CEDAW United Nations Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women in All Its Forms

CEFIC European Council of Chemical Manufacturers’ Federations

CEI Cumulative exposure index

CEIC Canada Employment and Immigration Commission

CEN European Committee for Standardization

CENELEC Comité européen de normalisation électrotechnique

CENTC European Community Standard

CEO Chief executive officer

CEPA Canadian Environmental Protection Act

CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research

CET Corrected Effective Temperature

CETG United Nations Committee of Experts on Transport of Dangerous Goods

CF Complement fixation

CFR Case-fatality rate

CFRT Converted floating roof tank

CFST Federal Commission of Coordination

CFU Colony-forming units

CHD Coronary heart disease

CI Confidence interval

CIBC International Council of Building Research

CIBSE Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

CIE Commission internationale de l’éclairage

CIM Computer-integrated manufacturing

CIMAS International Conference of Sickness Insurance Funds and Mutual Benefit Societies

CIOMS Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences

CIP Cleaning-in-place

CIRA International Committee for the Reglementation of Lifts

CIS International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre

CISMID Centro Peruano Japonés de Investigaciones Sísmicas y Mitigación de Desastres

CIVD Cold-induced vasodilatation

CJD Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

CLL Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia

CMA Cost minimization analysis

CMA Chemical Manufacturers Association

CMEA Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

CML Chronic myelocytic leukaemia

CMS Chronic mountain sickness

CNA Caisse nationale suisse d’assurance en cas d’accidents

CNAM Conservatoire national des arts et métiers

CNC Computer numeric control

CNC Computer-assisted numerical control system

CNC Computer numerical controlled

CNG Compressed natural gas

CNS Central nervous system

CNSLD Chronic non-specific lung disease

COA Canada-Ontario Agreement

COD Chemical oxygen demand

COHSE Confederation of Health Service Employees

COLREG Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea

COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

COPRO Coproporphyrin

COPRO-U Coproporphyrin in urine

CORD Center for Occupational Research and Development

COSH Committees on Occupational Safety and Health

COTOREP Commission technique d’orientation et de réinsertion professionnelle

CPAF Cost plus award fee and production

CPC Chemical-protective clothing

CPDB Carcinogen potency database

CPFF Cost plus fixed fee

CPIAS Permanent International Committee on Social Insurance

CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CPS Cancer Prevention Study

CPSC Consumer Product Safety Commission

CPTED Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

CPU Central processing unit

CQI Continuous quality improvement

CRT Cathode ray tub

CRU Customer replaceable units

CSCL Chemical Substances Control Law

CSD Commission on Sustainable Development

CSF Cerebrospinal fluid

CSHES Centres for State Hygienic and Epidemiological Supervision

CSO Canadian Standards Organization

CT Computed tomography

CTD Cumulative trauma disorders

CTM Mexican Confederation of Workers

CTS Carpal tunnel syndrome

CUA Cost utility analysis

CV Constant volume

CVD Cardiovascular diseases

CVD Chemical vapour deposition

CVI Chemical vapour infiltration

CWP Coal workers’ pneumoconiosis

D

DALY Disability adjusted life year

DAST Drug Abuse Screening Test

DBMS Database management system

DBP Diastolic blood pressure

DC Direct current

DF Defence

DFG Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft

DG Directorate General

DHC Double-hand controls

DI De-ionized

DIC Disseminated intra-vascular coagulation

DIESAT Network of Science Shops in the Netherlands

DIN German Institute for Normalization

DIP Dual-in-line package

DIPF Diffuse and progressive interstitial fibrosis

DIS Draft International Standard

DISTAT United Nations Disability Statistics Compendium

DKFZ German Cancer Research Center

DLCO Decreased carbon monoxide diffusing capacity

DLE Duration-limited exposures

DLPW Department of Labour Protection and Welfare

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

DOE Department of Energy (US)

DOK-MEGA Documentation for Measurement Data on Hazardous Substances in the Workplace (German)

DOL Department of Labor (US)

DOT Directly observed therapy

DOV Days from ovulation

DRG Diagnosis-related grouping

DS Data sheet

DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA)

DSP Diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning

E

E/E/PE Electro-mechanical, electronic and programmable electronic

EA Environmental assessment

EAA Extrinsic allergic alveolitis

EAEC European Atomic Energy Community

EAF Electric arc furnace

EAP Employee assistance programme

EC Executive Committee

EC₅₀ Effective concentration for 50%

ECA Epidemiological Catchment Area

ECCS Emergency core cooling system

ECD European Commission Directive

ECD Electron capture detector

ECETOC European Chemical Industry Ecology-Toxicology Research Centre

ECG Electrocardiogram

ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean

ECO Pan-American Centre for Human Ecology and Health

ECOSOC Economic and Social Council

ECSC European Coal and Steel Community Treaty

ECTU European Confederation of Trade Unions

ECU European Social Charter

ECVAM European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods

EDXA Energy dispersive x-ray analysis

EEC European Economic Commission

EEC European Economic Community

EEC European Economic Council

EEG Electroencephalogram

EEO Equal employment opportunity

EEOC Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (US)

EER Equilibrium equivalent of radon

EFQM European Foundation for Quality Management

EFRT External floating roof tanks

EFTA European Free Trade Association

EGF Epidermal growth factor

EHC Environmental Health Criteria

EHS Environmental health and safety

EIA Environmental impact assessment

EIS Environmental impact statement

EKG (German) Electrocardiogram

EL Exposure limits

ELF Extremely low frequency

ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

EM Electromagnetic

EMC Electromagnetic compatibility

EMF Electromagnetic field

EMG Electromyography

EMI Electromagnetic interference

EMS Environmental management system

EMT Emergency medical technicians

EN European Norms (Standard)

ENG Electroneurography

EOG Electro-oculographic

EP Evoked potentials

EPA Environmental Protection Agency (US)

EPM Electronic performance monitoring

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

ER Endoplasmic reticulum

ERC Educational Resource Program

EREMP Emergency Radiological Environmental Monitoring Programme

ERG Eastern Research Group

ERIC Educational Resources Information Center

ES Emergency stop

ESA-IRS European Space Agency’s Information Retrieval System

ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

ESD Emergency shut-down valves

ET Environmental technology

ET Effective temperature

ETS Environmental tobacco smoke

ETSI European Telecommunication Standards Institute

EU European Union

EUC Equipment under control

F

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

FBR Fast breeder reactors

FCAW Flux core arc welding

FCC Fluid catalytic cracking

FCI Freezing cold injuries

FDIS Final Draft International Standard

FDP Fibrin degradation products

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency (US)

FEP Free erythrocyte protoporphyrin

FEV₁ Forced expiratory volume in 1 second

FFP Firm fixed price

FFPAF Firm fixed price award fee

FFR Fume formation rate

FGR Fume generation rate

FID Flame ionization detector

FIET International Federation of Commercial, Clerical and Technical Employees

FIFRA Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (US)

FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency

FM Frequency modulation

FMEA Failure mode and effect analysis

FO Objective fit

FOPS Falling-object protective structures

FPA Fire Protection Association

FPHS Farmers’ Preventive Health Service

FRC Functional residual capacity

FREM Fire risk evaluation method

FRG Federal Republic of Germany

FRPP Flame-resistant polypropylene

FRS Call restraint system

FS Subjective fit

FSH Follicle stimulating hormone

FTAS Framingham Type A Scale

FTP File transfer protocols

FVC Forced vital capacity

G

GAG Glycosaminoglycan

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GDP Gross domestic product

GDR German Democratic Republic

GEENET Global Environmental Epidemiology Network

GEMS Generic error modelling system

GEMS/Food Joint UNEP/FAO/WHO Food Contamination Monitoring Programme

GFI Ground fault interrupter

GFT General failure types

GHG Greenhouse gases

GIFAP International Group of National Associations of Agrochemical Manufacturers

GISBAU Gefahrstoff-Informationssystem der Berufsgenossenschaften der Bauwirtschaft

GIT Gastrointestinal tract

GLP Good laboratory practice

GLR Gas cooled reactors

GLSP Good large-scale practice

GLWQA Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement

G-M Geiger-Mueller

GC Gas chromatography

GMAW Gas metal arc welding

GMO Genetically manipulated organism

GMP Good manufacturing practice

GNP Gross national product

GOST State standards on occupational health and safety in the Russian Federation

GRP Glass-reinforced plastics

GTAW Gas tungsten arc welding

H

HAP Hazardous air pollutants

HASS Home Accident Surveillance System

HAV Hand-arm vibration

HAV Hepatitis A virus

HAVS Hand-arm vibration syndrome

HAZMAT Hazardous materials

HAZOP Hazard and operability studies

HBIG Hepatitis B immune globulin

HBsAg Hepatitis B surface antigen

HBV Hepatitis B virus

HCC Hepatocellular carcinoma

HCG Human chorionic gonadotrophins

HCIM Human and computer-integrated manufacturing

HCL Health care leader

HCP Hearing conservation programmes

HCS Hazard Communication Standard

HCT Health care trainers

HCV Hepatitis C virus

HCW Health care worker

HD Hodgkin’s disease

HDL High density lipoproteins

HDV Hepatitis D virus

HEG Homogeneous exposure groups

HEPA High efficiency particulate air filters

HEPA High-efficiency particulate attenuator

HEPS Health and Epidemic Prevention Station

HFRS Haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome

HG Highest grade

HHS Hypothenar hammer syndrome

HID High-intensity discharge

HIP Hazard identification process

HIP Hot isostatic pressing

HiPox High-pressure oxidation

HIV Human-immunodeficiency virus

HMO Health maintenance organization

HMTRI Hazardous Materials Training and Research Institute

HP Hypersensitivity pneumonitis

HPD Hearing protection devices

HPLC High-performance liquid chromatography

HPP Health promotion and prevention

HPP Health protection and promotion

HPS Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

HR Heart rate

HR Highly recommended

HRA Health risk appraisal

HRCT High resolution computer tomography

HRDI Human Resources Development Institute

HRGC High-resolution capillary columns

HRM Human resources management

HRT Hormone replacement therapy

HSDIP Hygienic standards for design of industrial premises

HSE Health and Safety Executive (UK)

HSEES Hazardous Substances Emergency Events Surveillance

HSI Heat Stress Index

HV High voltage

HVAC Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning

HVBG Central Federation of the Berufsgenossenschaften

HVL Half-value layer

HVLP High volume, low pressure

HVR Hypoxic ventilatory response

HVT Half-value thickness

HWE Healthy worker effect

HY High yield

I

IAAMRH International Association on Agricultural Medicine and Rural Health

IACRS Inter-Agency Committee on Radiation Safety

IAEA International Atomic Energy Association

IALI International Association of Labour Inspection

IAM International Association of Machinists

IAMAW International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers

IAOP International Association of Outplacement Professionals

IAQ Indoor air quality

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

IAS Institute for Occupational and Social Medicine

IASC Inter-American Safety Council

IATA International Air Transport Association

IBC Institutional Biosafety Committee

IBC Individual bulk containers

IBE International Bureau for Epilepsy

IBM International Business Machines

IBS Irritable bowel syndrome

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICC International Chambers of Commerce

ICC Intraclass correlation coefficient

ICCA International Council of Chemical Associations

ICCVAM Interagency Coordinating Committee for the Validation of Alternative Methods

ICD International Classification of Disease

ICE Interleukin converting enzyme

ICEF International Federation of Chemical, Energy and General Workers’ Union

ICEM International Confederation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers’ Union

ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

ICFTU International Confederation of Free Trade Unions

ICI Industrial, commercial and institutional

ICIDH International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps

ICIE International Centre for Industry and the Environment

ICME International Council on Metals and the Environment

ICN International Council of Nurses

ICNIRP International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection

ICOH International Commission on Occupational Health

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection

ICSU International Council of Scientific Union

ICTU Irish Congress of Trade Unions

ICWU International Chemical Workers Union

I-E Internal-external

IC Integrated circuit

ID Inside diameter

IDB Inter-American Development Bank

IDC Industrially developing country

IDLH Immediately dangerous to life and health

IDNDR United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

IDPIS Integrated Drug and Poison Information Service (Thailand)

IDV Indinavir

IEA International Ergonomics Association

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

IES Illuminating Engineering Society

IFB Invitation for bid

IFBWW International Federation of Building and Wood Workers

IFIESR International Foundation for Industrial Ergonomics and Safety Research

IFRCRCS International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

IFSG International Fiber Safety Group

IGO Intergovernmental organizations

IHD Ischaemic heart disease

IHEA International Hunter Education Association

IILS International Institute for Labour Studies

IISI International Iron and Steel Institute

IJC International Joint Commission

IJOEH International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health

IL2 Interleukin-2

ILC International Labour Conference

ILCOS International Lamp Coding System

ILGWU International Ladies Garment Workers Union

ILO International Labour Organization

ILO International Labour Office

IMDG International Maritime Dangerous Goods

IMIS Integrated Management Information System

IMO International Maritime Organization

IMV Index of median values

INES International nuclear events scale

INH Isoniazid

INIRC/IRPA International Committee for Non-Ionizing Radiation of the International Radiation Protection Association

IOCC Inter-Organization Coordinating Committee

IOCU International Organization of Consumers Unions

IOE International Employers Organization

IOHA International Occupational Hygiene Association

IOM Institute of Occupational Medicine

IOM/CAPM Institute of Occupational Medicine, Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine

IOMC Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals

IPAI International Primary Aluminum Institute

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPCS International Programme on Chemical Safety

IPEC International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour

IPEET Inter-American Partnership for Environmental Education and Training

IPM Integrated pest management

IPM Inhalable particulate mass

IPM Inspirable particulate mass

IQ Intelligence quotient

IR Ionizing radiation

IR Infrared radiation

IRB Institutional Review Board

IREQ Calculated required insulation value

IRPA International Radiation Protection Association

IRPTC International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals

IRR Infrared radiation

IRSST Institute for Occupational Health and Safety Research (Quebec, Canada)

IS International Standard

ISA International Standards Association

ISA Instrument Society of America

ISBN International Standard Book Number

ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations

ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification

ISO International Organization for Standardization

ISRS International Safety Rating System

ISSA International Social Security Association

ISSA International Safety and Security Association

ITQ Individual transferable quota

ITS Index of thermal stress

ITV Interactive television

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources-World Conservation Union

IUD Intrauterine contraceptive device

IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

IVP Intravenous pyelogram

IWC International Whaling Commission

J

JAS Jenkins Activity Survey

JECFA Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives

JISHA Japan Industrial Safety and Health Association

JIT Just-in-time production

JMA Japan Medical Association

JMPR Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues

JPCG Joint Presidents Coordinating Group

JPG Joint Presidents Group

JSOH Japan Society for Occupational Health

K

KSA Knowledge, skills and abilities

L

LADAPT Ligue pour l’adaptation des diminués physiques au travail

LAMP Lakewide management plan

LAN Local area network

LBP Low-back pain

LBW Low birth weight

LCA Life-cycle assessments

LCD Liquid crystal display

LCI Life-cycle inventory

LCM Lymphocytic choriomeningitis

LD Linz-Donowitz

LD₅₀ Lethal dose –50%

LDH Lactate dehydrogenase

LDL Low density lipoproteins

LEC Low-pressure liquid encapsulated Czochralski

LED Light-emitting diodes

LEL Lower explosive limits

LET Linear energy transfer

LEV Local exhaust ventilation

LFL Lower flammable limits

LH Luteinizing hormone

LHD Load-haul-dump

LI Lifting index

LISREL Weight-least squares statistical analysis procedure

LIUNA Laborers International Union of North America

LMC Landell Mills Commodities

LMFBR Liquid metal fast breeder reactors

LMM Lentigo malignant melanomas

LNG Liquefied natural gas

LOAEL Lowest observed adverse effect level

LOC Locus of control

LOEL Lowest observable effect level

LOSC Montego Bay Convention on the Law of the Sea

LP Liquid petroleum

LPE Liquid-phase epitaxy

LPG Liquefied petroleum gas

LPN Licensed practical nurse

LSF Low smoke and fire

LSF Low-solids flux

LTA Less than adequate

LTT Lymphocyte transformation test

LVD Low Voltage Directive

LWGR Light water graphite reactors

M

MAC Maximum allowable concentrations

MAIM Merseyside Accident Information Model

MAK Maximum workplace concentration

MALT Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

MAP Membership Assistance Programmes

MARPOL London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter

MAST Michigan Alcohol Screening Test

MAT Mobile access towers

MBA Master of Business Administration

MBE Molecular-beam epitaxy

MCM Million cubic metres

MCQ Multiple-choice questions

MCS Multiple chemical sensitivities

MCV Mean corpuscular volume

MD Machinery Directive

MDF Medium-density fibreboard

MDT Multidisciplinary teams

MED Minimal erythemal dose

MEQ Modified essay questions

MERCOSUR Southern Market —Mercado Común del Sur

MeV Million electron volts

MFF Metal fume fever

MG Mean grade

MGP Manufactured gas plant

MHC Mental health counsellors

MHW Ministry of Health and Welfare

MI Mineral insulated

MIE Minimal ignition energy

MIG Metal inert gas

MIS Management information system

MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry

ML Maximum levels

MLSS Mixed liquor suspended solids

MM Multiple myeloma

MM Maintenance management

MMC Metal-matrix composites

MMF Man-made mineral fibres

MMH Manual materials handling

MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Index

MMR Measles-mumps-rubella

MMVF Man-made vitreous fibres

MN Micronuclei

MNC Multinational corporations

MOA Ministry of Agriculture

MOCVD Metallorganic chemical-vapour deposition

MOIA Ministry of Industrial Administration

MOL Ministry of Labour

MOPH Ministry of Public Health

MOR Mortality odds ratio

MORT Management Oversight and Risk Tree

MPD Minimum premarketing set of data

MPPD Maximum Probable Property Damage

MPS Mononuclear phagocyte system

MR Magnetic resonance

MRC Medical Research Council

MRC Metallic replacement cartridges

MRF Material recycling facilities

MRI Magnetic resonance imaging

MRL Maximum residue levels

MS Mainstream smoke

MSD Motion Sickness Dose Value

MSDS Material safety data sheet

MSF Manufacturing-Science-Finance

MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration

MSI Musculoskeletal injuries

MSW Municipal solid waste

MTBF Mean time between failures

MTBM Mean time between maintenance

MTD Maximum tolerated dose

MTF Modulation transfer function

MUB Molasses urea block

MVC Maximal voluntary capacity

MVK Moolgavkar-Venzon-Knudson

MVLC Maximal voluntary lifting capacity

MVOC Microbial volatile organic compounds

MWe Megawatts of electric power

MWL Mental workload

MWR Megawatts of refrigeration

MYR Million ringgit

N

NA Negative affectivity

NADH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

NAEP National Asthma Education Program

NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement

NAS National Academy of Science (US)

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (US)

NASA-TLX NASA Task Load Index

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NBC Nuclear, biological, chemical

NBR Non-specific bronchial responsiveness

NC Nutrition counsellors

NC Numerically controlled

NC Numerical control

NCHS National Center for Health Statistics (US)

NCI National Cancer Institute (US)

NCODD National Committee on Occupational Disease Diagnosis

NCODPT National Centre for Occupational Disease Prevention and Treatment

NCOHR National Centre of Occupational Health Reporting

NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

NCTB Neurobehavioral Core Test Battery

NCV Nerve conduction velocity

NDIR Non-dispersive infrared detectors

NEETC National Environmental Education and Training Center, Inc.

NEG Nordic Expert Group

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act

NES Neurobehavioral Evaluation System

NESC National Electrical Safety Code

NESHAP Aerospace National Emission Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants

NFCI Non-freezing cold injuries

NFPA National Fire Protection Association (US)

NGO Non-governmental organization

NHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

NHIS National Health Interview Survey

NHL Non-Hodgkins lymphoma

NHS National Health Service

NHZ Nominal hazard zone

NIC Newly industrialized countries

NICE National Institute for the Improvement of Working Conditions and Environment

NIEHS National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences

NIH National Institutes of Health (US)

NIHG National Institutes of Health Guidelines (US)

NIHL Noise-induced hearing loss

NIMBY Not in my back yard

NIMH National Institute for Mental Health

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (US)

NiPERA Nickel Producers Evironmental Research Association

NIPTS Noise-induced permanent threshold shift

NIR Non-ionizing radiation

NK Natural killer [cell]

NM Nodular melanomas

NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance

NMSC Non-melanocytic skin cancers

NMWCC National Maximum Workplace Concentration Committee

NOAEL No observed adverse effect level

NOEL No observable effect level

NOES National Occupational Exposure Surveys

NP Nasopharyngeal

NPD Nitrogen and phosphorus detector

NPP Nuclear power plant

NPRI National Pollutant Release Inventory

NR Not recommended

NR Noise reduction

NRC National Research Council (US)

NRL Natural rubber latex

NRPB National Radiological Protection Board

NRR Noise Reduction Rating

NSAID Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

NSC National Safety Council (US)

NSCLC Non-small cell lung cancer

NSD National Safety Day

NSF National Science Foundation

NTCHS National Technical Committee of Hygienic Standards

NTIS National Technical Information Service (US)

NTOF National Traumatic Occupational Fatalities

NUD Non-ulcer dyspepsia

NVOC Non-volatile organic compound

NYC/TLC New York City/Taxi and Limousine Commission

O

OA Occupational asthma

OAAAS Occupational asthma associated with aluminium smelting

OAP Occupationally acquired pneumonia

OARU Occupational Accident Research Unit

OAS Organization of American States

OATUU Organization of African Trade Union Unity

OAU Organization of African Unity

OBM Organization behaviour management

OCD Occupational cervicobrachial disorder

OCP Organochlorine pesticides

OCR Optical character reader

OD Optical densities

ODC Occupational Disease Certification

ODIN Organizational Service for On-going Examinations

ODM Omni Diurnal Model

ODTS Organic dust toxic syndrome

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OECD Organization for Economic and Cultural Development

OEH Occupational and environmental health

OEL Occupational exposure limits

OES Occupational Exposure Standards

OHAS Open hybrid automated system

OHC Occupational health counsellors

OHC Occupational health centres

OHI Occupational health institutions

OHO Occupational health organization

OHPP Occupational health promotion physicians

OILPOL Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil

OMB Office of Management and Budget

OMNI Occupational Medicine and Nursing Information

OMVPE Metallorganic chemical-vapour deposition

ONAC Office des anciens combattants

OP Occupational health physician

OPA Occupational disease prevention

OR Odds ratio

ORSE Optimal room surveillance equipment

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy

OTA Office of Technology Assessment

OTC Over-the-counter

P

P&G Proctor & Gamble

P&ID Process and implementation diagrams

P/I Piping and instrumentation

PAW Plasma-arc welding

P-E Person-environment

PA Positive affectivity

PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

PAHO Pan-American Health Organization

PAPR Powered air-purifying respirator

PAQ Position analysis questionnaire

PAR Population attributable risk

PAR Parabolic aluminized reflector

PAS Pellenberg Audit System

PB Barometric pressure

PBPK Physiologically based pharmacokinetics

PBX Private branch exchange

PC Personal computer

PC Programmable controller

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls

PCB Printed circuit board

PCHE Plasma cholinesterase

PCI Pulverized coal injection

PCMR Proportionate cancer mortality ratio

PCR Polymerase chain reaction

PEF Peak expiratory flow

PEL Permissible exposure limits

PEP Post-exposure prophylaxis

PES Programmable Electronic Systems

PET Positron-emission tomography

PETE Partnership for Environmental Technology Education

PFAS Personal fall arrest system

PFD Personal flotation device

PFU Plaque-forming units

PHC Municipal health centres in Finland

PHCW Primary health care workers

PHEL Physiological heat exposure limit

PHS Public Health Service (US)

PHWR Pressurized heavy water reactors

PID Photo-ionization detector

PIRS Passive infrared sensor

PLC Programmable logic controller

PLS Pregnant leach solution

PM Poor metabolizer

PMF Progressive massive fibrosis

PMN Premanufacture notification

PMR Proportional mortality ratio

PMS Premenstrual syndrome

PMV Predicted Mean Vote

PNOC Particulate not otherwise classified

PNS Peripheral nervous system

POAH Pre-optic/anterior hypothalamus

POC Performance operating characteristic

POM Particulate organic matter

POMS Profile of Mood States

POP Persistent organic pollutants

POTW Publicly owned treatment works

PPD Purified protein derivative

PPE Personal protective equipment

PPO Preferred provider organization

PRA Pre-Retirement Association

PRD Product requirements document

PRN Planning of Required Nursing

PROBAS Danish Product Register Data Base

PRV Pressure relief valves

PSA Prostate specific antigen

PSC Probabilistic safety criteria

PSL Priority Substances List

PSP Paralytic shellfish poisoning

PSS Particle size selective

PSS Progressive systemic scleroderma

PTO Power-take-off

PTS Permanent threshold shift

PTSD Post-traumatic stress disorder

PUF Polyurethane foams

PV Pressure-vacuum

PVD Physical vapour deposition

PWB Printed wiring board

PWI Projects with Industry

PWR Pressurized water reactor

Q

QALY Quality adjusted life year

QFD Quality function deployment

QR Quick response

QRA Quantified risk assessment

QWL Quality of Working Life

R

R&D Research and development

RAC Recombinant Advisory Committee

RACB Reproductive assessment by continuous breeding

RADS Reactive airway dysfunction syndrome

RAMS Russian Academy of Medical Scientists

RAP Remedial action plan

RAS Relative aerobic strain

RBC Red blood corpuscles

RBE Relative biological effectiveness

RBM Raise boring machines

RBMK Pressure tube large power boiling water reactors

RBMK Power pressure-tube reactor

RCC Renal cell carcinoma

RCT Rational choice theory

RCW Cold weather ration

RDF Refuse derived fuel

rDNA Recombinant DNA

REL Recommended exposure limits

REM Rapid eye movement

RES Reference Energy System

RES Reticuloendothelial system

RFP Request for proposal

R-R Response-response

RA Rosin active

RF Rheumatoid factors

RF Radiofrequency

RfD Reference dose

RFO Reduced-flow orifices

RH Relative humidity

RHR Rate of heat release

RHT Risk homeostasis theory

RID International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail

RIE Reactive ion etching

RIF Reduction in force

RMA Rosin mildly active

RNA Ribonucleic acid

RNUR Renault Organization

ROM Run-of-mine

ROPS Rollover protective structures

RPE Rating of perceived exertion

RPM Respirable particulate mass

RR Relative risk

RSI Repetitive strain injury

RT Respiratory tract

RTB Retinol binding protein

RTECS Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances

RTUM Rehabilitation Technology Usability Model

RV Residual volume

S

SAB Spontaneous abortion

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

SAG Soviet Wismut Company

SAR Specific absorption rate

SAR Structure-activity relationships

SARA Superfund Act Reauthorization Amendment (US)

SAT Soil-aquifer treatment

SAW Submerged arc welding

SBN Single breath nitrogen

SBP Systolic blood pressure

SBR Styrene-butadiene rubber

SBS Sick building syndrome

SEER Surveillance, epidemiology and end results

S-R Stimulus-response

S-S Stimulus-stimulus

SC Subcommittee

SCAT Special casualty access teams

SCBA Self-contained breathing apparatus

SCE Sister chromatid exchange

SCLC Large cell carcinoma and small cell carcinoma

SCUBA Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus

SD Standard deviation

SDAG Soviet-German Wismut Company

SDI Selective dissemination of information

SDQ Safety Diagnosis Questionnaire

SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act

SE Self-esteem

SEAT Seat effective amplitude transmissibility

SED System ergonomic design

SEIU Service Employees International Union

SELF Ergonomics Society of French-Speaking Countries

SEMI Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International

SEN/slide Single-edge-notched/slide

SET Standard effective temperature

SEU Subjective expected utility

SEZ Special economic zones

SGA Small for gestational age

SI Système international (International system of units of measurements)

SI Structured interview

SIA Semiconductor Industry Association

SIC Standard Industrial Classification

SIDS Sudden infant death syndrome

SIL Safety Integrity Level

SIL Speech interference levels

SkBF Skin blood flow

SLE Systemic lupus erythematosus

SLM Sound level meter

SMAW Shielded metal arc welding

SMC Surface mount components

SME Small- and medium-sized enterprises

SMORT Safety Management and Organization Review Technique

SMP Suspended particulate matter

SMR Standardized Mortality Ratio

SMT Surface mounting technology

SNAP Sensory action potential

SNOMED Systematic Nomenclature of Medicine

SNR Single Number Rating

SOC Sense of coherence

SOGS South Oaks Gambling Screen

SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea

SOP Strategic Options Process

SPECT Single photon emission computed tomography

SPES Swedish Performance Evaluation System

SPF Sun protection factor

SPL Sound pressure level

SPM Suspended particulate matter

SPRIA Society for Participatory Research in Asia

SRR Standardized rate ratio

SS Sidestream smoke

SS Suspended solids

SSE Small-scale enterprise

SSM Superficial spreading melanomas

STD Sexually transmitted disease

STEL Short-term exposure limit

STEP Sequentially timed events plotting procedure

SUVA Swiss National Accident Insurance Organization

SUW Solid urban wastes

SV Stroke volume

SV40 Simian virus 40

SVOC Semi-volatile organic compounds

SWORD Surveillance of Work-related Respiratory Disease

SXEW Solvent extraction/ electrowinning process

T

TABP Type A behaviour pattern

TAD Technical Inspection Service

TB Tracheobronchial

TBM Tunnel-boring machine

TBS-GA Tätigkeitsbewertungs System für geistige Arbeit (Task Diagnosis Survey-Mental Work)

TC Technical committees

TCC Transitional cell carcinoma

TCC Thermofor catalytic cracking

THP Total Health Promotion

TI Texas Instruments

TIG Tungsten inert gas

TLC Total lung capacity

TLD Thermoluminescent dosimeters

TLV Threshold limit value

TLV-STEL Threshold limit values- short-term exposure levels

TLV-TWA Threshold limit value-time weighted average

TNF Tumour necrosis factor

TNO Dutch National Technical Institute

TOC Total organic carbon

TOP Technology, organization and personnel

TOS Toxic oil syndrome

TPDA Tellurium-radioiodinated fatty acid

TPM Thoracic particulate mass

TQA Total quality assurance

TQC Total quality control

TQL Total quality leadership

TQM Total quality management

TRGS Technical rules for hazardous substances

TRI Toxic Release Inventory

TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act (US)

TSD Theory of signal detection

TSNA Tobacco-specific nitrosamines

TSP Total suspended particles

TSS Total suspended solids

TST Tuberculin skin test

TTE Total time exposed

TTS Temporary threshold shift

TUC Trades Union Congress (UK)

TUR Toxics use reduction

TUTB European Trade Union Technical Bureau for Occupational Safety and Health

TVL Tenth-value layer

TVOC Total volatile organic compound

TWA Time-weighted average

TWAL Time-weighted average limit

U

UAW United Auto Workers

UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights

ULPZ Upper limit of the prescriptive zone

ULV Ultra-low volume

UN United Nations

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNCETG United Nations Committee of Experts on Transport of Dangerous Goods

UNCHR United Nations Commission on Human Rights

UNCLOS United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea

UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

UNCTC United Nations Centre on Transnational Corporations

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNDRO United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator Office

UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNEP-IRPTC UNEP International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population Activities

UNGA United Nations General Assembly

UNICE Union of Industrial and Employers Confederations of Europe

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

UNIPEDE Union internationale des producteurs et distributeurs d’énergie électrique

UNRTDG United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods

UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

UOEH University of Occupational and Environmental Health (Japan)

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USBLS United States Bureau of Labor Statistics

USCFR United States Code of Federal Regulations

USDA United States Department of Agriculture

USDHHS United States Department of Health and Human Services

USDOE United States Department of Energy

USDOL United States Department of Labor

USM University Sains Malaysia

USNRC United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

USOTA United States Office of Technology Assessment

USPHS United States Public Health Services

UST Underground storage tanks

UV Ultraviolet

UVA Ultraviolet radiation-A

UVB Ultraviolet radiation-B

UVC Ultraviolet radiation-C

UVGI Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation

UVR Ultraviolet radiation

V

VA Visual acuity

VAV Variable volume

VC Vital capacity

VCR Vertical crater retreat

VDT Video display terminal

VDU Visual display unit

VLF Very low frequency

VMT Vehicle mile travelled

VOC Volatile organic compound

VPE Vapour-phase epitaxy

VPP Voluntary protection programme

VVS Vibration-related vasospastic syndrome

VWF Vibration-induced white finger

W

WAA Work-aggravated asthma

WANO World Association of Nuclear Operators

WBC White blood corpuscles

WBGT Wet bulb globe temperature

WC Water closet

WCB Workers’ Compensation Board

WCGS Western Collaborative Group Study

WCI Wind Chill Index

WCL World Confederation of Labour

WCS Workers’ compensation system

WD Working draft

WEF Work Environment Fund (Sweden)

WERC Waste-management Education and Research Consortium

WFTU World Federation of Trade Unions

WG Working group

WGT Wet globe temperature

WHA World Health Assembly

WHIMS Wet high-intensity separator

WHMIS Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (Canada)

WHO World Health Organization

WHPA Well head protection area

WLM Working Level Month

WMA World Medical Association

WRAP Waste Reduction Always Pays

WRMD Work-related musculoskeletal disorder

WTO World Trade Organization

Y

YMCA Young Men’s Christian Association

Z

ZCTU Zambia Congress of Trade Unions

ZDV Zidovudine

ZeBWis Wismut Central Care Office

ZIGUV Central Information System of the BG

ZPP Zinc protoporphyrin

Back

Published in Guide to Units and Abbreviations

Sunday, 17 July 2011 22:28

International System of Units

The International System of Units is a decimal system of weights and measures which is based on and extends the metric system. It is abbreviated as SI in all languages.

SI includes seven basic units (see table 1). The metre, defined to be 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the red-orange line of the krypton-86 spectrum, is the SI unit for length. The kilogram, which is approximately 2.2 pounds avoirdupois and equals 1,000 grams (as defined by the platinum-iridium prototype kilogram held by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres, France), is the SI unit for mass. It is the sole base unit that remains defined by an artefact. It is also the only SI unit with a prefix as part of its name and symbol. The second, or the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation corresponding to a specified transition of the caesium-133 atom, is the SI unit for time. The ampere is the SI unit for electric current. It is the constant current produced by one volt which, when maintained in two parallel conductors separated by one metre in vacuum, generates an electromagnetic force of 2 x 10^-7 N m^-1. The kelvin, which is equal to 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature at the triple point of water, is the SI unit for thermodynamic temperature. The kelvin’s magnitude equals that of the degree Celsius; however, a temperature expressed in degrees Celsius is the numerical equivalent of the temperature in kelvins less 273.15. The mole is the SI unit for amount of substance; it contains as many elementary units of substance as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12. Elementary units must be specified, as they may be atoms, electrons, ions, molecules, radicals, etc. The candela is the SI unit for luminous intensity. It equals the luminous intensity of the black-body radiation, in the perpendicular direction, from an area of 1/600,000 square metres at platinum’s freezing temperature (2,042 kelvins) under 101,325 pascals of pressure, which approximates the intensity of a single paraffin candle.

Table 1. SI base units

Quantity	SI unit name	Symbol
Length	Metre	m
Mass¹	Kilogram	kg
Time	Second	s
Electric current	Ampere	A
Thermodynamic temperature	Kelvin²	K
Amount of substance	Mole	mol
Luminous intensity	Candela	cd

¹ "Weight” is often used to mean “mass”.
² The name “degree kelvin” and the symbol “degK” were declared obsolete
at a 1967 international conference.

SI also includes two supplementary units (see table 2). Radian and steradian are the dimensionless units for the dimensionless quantities plane angle and solid angle, respectively. Units for other quantities are derived from the seven basic and two supplementary units.

Table 2. SI supplementary units

Quantity	SI unit name	Symbol	Expression in terms of SI base units
Plane angle	Radian	rad	m·m^– ¹ =1
Solid angle	Steradian	sr	m² ·m^– ² =1

Table 3 lists selected SI derived units expressed in terms of base units. Derived units with special names and symbols are listed in table 4. These may be used to express other derived units (see table 5). The two supplementary units may also be used to express derived units (see table 6).

The 16 prefixes used to create multiples and submultiples of SI units are listed in table 7. Since multiple prefixes cannot be used, these prefixes are used with gram (g), but not with kilogram (kg).

A number of units that are not part of SI are widely used, especially in the United States. Those which are considered acceptable for use with SI in the US are listed in table 8. A conversion table for SI units is provided in table 9.

Table 3. Selected SI derived units expressed in terms of base units

Quantity	SI unit name	Symbol
Area	Square metre	m²
Volume	Cubic metre	m³
Speed, velocity	Metre per second	m/s
Acceleration	Metre per second squared	m/s²
Wave number	Reciprocal metre	m^– ¹
Density, mass density	Kilogram per cubic metre	kg/m³
Specific volume	Cubic metre per kilogram	m³/kg
Current density	Ampere per square metre	A/m²
Magnetic field strength	Ampere per metre	A/m
Concentration (of amount of substance)	mole per cubic metre	mol/m³
Luminance	Candela per square metre	cd/m²

Table 4. SI derived units with special names

Quantity	SI unit name	Symbol	Expression in terms of other units
Frequency	Hertz	Hz	s^– ¹
Force	Newton	N	m·kg/s²
Pressure, stress	Pascal	Pa	N/m²
Energy, work, quantity of heat	Joule	J	N·m
Power, radiant flux	Watt	W	J/s
Electric charge, quantity of electricity	Coulumb	C	s·A
Electric potential, potential difference, electromotive force	Volt	V	W/A
Capacitance	Farad	F	C/V
Electric resistance	Ohm	Omega	V/A
Electric conductance	Siemens	S	A/V
Magnetic flux	Weber	Wb	V·s
Magnetic flux density	Tesla	T	Wb/m²
Inductance	Henry	H	Wb/A
Celsius temperature¹	Degree Celsius	C	K
Luminous flux	Lumen	lm	cd·sr
Activity (of a radionuclide)	Becquerel	Bq	s^– ¹
Absorbed dose, specific energy imparted, kerma, absorbed dose index	Gray	Gy	J/kg
Dose equivalent, dose equivalent index	Sievert	Sv	J/kg

¹ In addition to the thermodynamic temperature (T) expressed in kelvins (see table 105.1), Celsius
temperature (t) is also used and is defined by the equation t = T – T₀ where T₀ = 273.15 K by
definition. The unit “degree Celsius”, which is equal to the unit “kelvin”, is used to express Celsius
temperature. Here, the term “degree Celsius” is a special name substituted for “kelvin”.
However, a difference or interval of Celsius temperature can be expressed in either kelvins
or degrees Celsius.

Table 5. Examples of SI derived units expressed with special names

Quantity	SI unit name	Symbol
Dynamic viscosity	Pascal second	Pa·s
Moment of force	Newton metre	N·m
Surface tension	Newton per metre	N/m
Heat flux density, irradiance	Watt per square metre	W/m²
Heat capacity, entropy	Joule per kelvin	J/K
Specific heat capacity, specific entropy	Joule per kilogram kelvin	J/(kg·K)
Specific energy	Joule per kilogram	J/kg
Thermal conductivity	Watt per metre kelvin	W/(m·K)
Energy density	Joule per cubic metre	J/m³
Electric field strength	Volt per metre	V/m
Electric charge density	Coulomb per cubic metre	C/m³
Electric flux density	Coulomb per square metre	C/m²
Permittivity	Farad per metre	F/m
Permeability	Henry per metre	H/m
Molar energy	Joule per metre	J/mol
Molar entropy, molar heat capacity	Joule per mole kelvin	J/(mol·K)
Exposure (x and gamma rays)	Coulomb per kilogram	C/kg
Absorbed dose rate	Gray per second	Gy/s

Table 6. Examples of SI derived units formed with supplementary units

Quantity	SI unit name	Symbol
Angular velocity	Radian per second	rad/s
Angular acceleration	Radian per second squared	rad/s²
Radiant intensity	Watt per steradian	W/sr
Radiance	Watt per square metre steradian	W/(m²·sr)

Table 7. SI prefixes

Factor	Prefix	Symbol
10¹⁸	exa	E
10¹⁵	peta	P
10¹²	tera	T
10⁹	giga	G
10⁶	mega	M
10³	kilo	k
10²	hecto	h
10¹	deka	da
10^- ¹	deci	d
10^- ²	centi	c
10^- ³	milli	m
10^- ⁶	micro	μ
10^- ⁹	nano	n
10^- ¹²	pico	p
10^- ¹⁵	femto	f
10^- ¹⁸	atto	a

Table 8. Units in use with SI

Name	Symbol	Value in SI unit
Minute (time)	min	1 min = 60 s
Hour	h	1 h = 60 min = 3,600 s
Day	d	1 d = 24 h = 86,400 s
Degree (angle)		1 = (pi/180) rad
Minute (angle)		1  = (1/60) = (pi/10,800) rad
Second (angle)		1  = (1/60) = (pi/648,000) rad
Litre	l¹	1 l = 1 dm³ = 10^– ³ m³
Tonne²	t	1 t = 10³ kg
Hectare (land area)	ha	1 ha = 1 hm² = 10⁴ m²
Electronvolt³	eV	1 eV = 1.602 18 x 10^– ¹⁹ J
Unified atomic mass unit³	u	1 u = 1.660 54 x 10^– ²⁷ kg

¹ Both “l” and “L” are accepted as symbols for litre.
² In some countries, such as the United States, “metric ton” is used instead of “tonne”.
³ The values of these units in SI units are not known exactly; the values must be obtained
through experiment. The electronvolt is the kinetic energy acquired by an electron passing
through a potential difference of 1 volt in a vacuum. The unified atomic mass unit equals 1/12 of
the mass of the atom of the nuclide ¹²C.

Table 9. Conversion of non-SI units to SI units

From/to	To/from	Multiply by/divide by
Inch (in)	m	2.54 x 10^– ²
Feet (ft)	m	0.3048
Square inch (in² )	m²	6.4516 x 10^– ⁴
Square foot (ft² )	m²	9.2903 x 10^– ²
Cubic inch (in³ )	m³	1.638 71 x 10^– ⁵
Cubic foot (ft³ )	m³	2.831 68 x 10^– ²
Litre (l)	m³	10^– ³
Gallon (gal)	m³	4.546 09 x 10^– ³
Mile/hour (mi hr^– ¹ )	m s^– ¹	0.477 04
Kilometre/hour (km hr^– ¹ )	m s^– ¹	0.277 78
Pound (lb)	kg	0.453 592
Gram/cm³ (g cm^– ³ )	kg m^– ³	10³
Pound/in³	kg m^– ³	2.767 99 x 10⁴
mmHG	Pa	133.322
Atmosphere (atm)	Pa	1.013 25 x 10⁵
Horsepower (hp)	W	745.7
erg	J	10^– ⁷
Electronvolt (eV)	J	1.602 10 x 10^– ¹⁹
Kilowatt-hour (kW hr)	J	3.6 x 10⁶
Calorie (cal)	J	4.1868
Dyne	N	10^– ⁵
kgf	N	9.806 65
Poundal	N	0.138 255
lbf	N	4.448 22

Acknowledgement: The information in the tables is based primarily on data from the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Back

Published in Guide to Units and Abbreviations

Friday, 15 July 2011 12:36

acids and anhydrides table 1

Acids and Anhydrides,Organic: Chemical identification

CHEMICAL	synonyms un code	CAS-number	CHEMICAL FORMULA
ACETIC ACID	Ethanoic acid; Ethylic acid; Methanecarboxylic acid UN2789 UN2790	64-19-7
ACETIC ANHYDRIDE	Acetanhydride; Acetic oxide; Acetyl anhydride; Acetyl ether; Acetyl oxide; Ethanoic anhydrate UN1715	108-24-7	<$&108247[-]>
ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID	Acetosalic acid; o-Acetoxybenzoic acid; 2-Acetoxybenzoic acid; Salicylic acid, acetate; Aspirin	50-78-2	<$&50782[-]>
ACRYLIC ACID	Ethylenecarboxylic acid; Propene acid; Propenoic acid UN2218	79-10-7	<$&79107[-]>
ADIPIC ACID	Adipinic acid; 1,4-Butanedicarboxylic acid; Hexanedioic acid; 1,6-Hexanedioic acid	124-04-9	<$&124049[-]>
L-ASCORBIC ACID	3-Keto-l-gulofuranolactone; L-3-Ketothreohexuronic acid lactone; Vitamin C	50-81-7	<$&50817[-]>
BENZOIC ACID	Benzenecarboxylic acid; Benzeneformic acid; Benzenemethanoic acid; Benzoate; Phenyl carboxylic acid; Phenylformic acid	65-85-0	<$&65850[-]>
BUTYRIC ACID	Butanic acid; Butanoic acid; n-Butyric acid; Butyric acid; Ethylacetic acid; 1-Propanecarboxylic acid; Propylformic acid UN2820	107-92-6	<$&107926[-]>
n-CAPROIC ACID	Butylacetic acid; Capronic acid; n-Hexanoic acid; N-Hexoic acid; Pentanecarboxylic acid; Pentiformic acid; Pentylformic acid UN2829	142-62-1	<$&142621[-]>
CHLORENDIC ACID	1,4,5,6,7,7-Hexachloro-5-norbornene-2,3-dicarboxylic acid; Hexachloro-endo-Methylenetetrahydrophthalic acid	115-28-6	<$&115286[-]>
CHLOROACETIC ACID	Monochloroacetic acid; Monochloroethanoic acid UN1750 UN1751	79-11-8	<$&79118[-]>
o-CHLOROBENZOIC ACID	2-CBA; 2-Chlorobenzoic acid	118-91-2	<$&118912[-]>
m-CHLOROBENZOIC ACID	3-Chlorobenzoic acid	535-80-8	<$&535808[-]>
p-CHLOROBENZOIC ACID	p-Carboxychlorobenzene; 4-Chlorobenzoic acid; Chlorodracylic acid	74-11-3	<$&74113[-]>
2-CHLOROPROPIONIC ACID	α-Chloropropionic acid UN2511	598-78-7	<$&598787[-]>
4-CHLORO-o-TOLOXYACETIC ACID	4-Chloro-o-cresoxyacetic acid; (4-Chloro-2-methylphenoxy)acetic acid;	94-74-6	<$&94746[-]>
CITRIC ACID	Citro; 2-hydroxy-1,2,3-Propanetricarboxylic acid; β-Hydroxytricarballylic acid	77-92-9	<$&77929[-]>
CITRIC ACID HYDRATE	1,2,3-Propanetricarboxylic acid, 2-Hydroxy-, monohydrate	5949-29-1	<$&5949291[-]>
CROTONIC ACID	α-Butenoic acid; β-Methylacrylic acid; 3-Methylacrylic acid UN2823	3724-65-0	<$&3724650[-]>
DICHLORACETIC ACID	Bichloracetic acid; 2,2-Dichloroacetic acid; Dichloroethanoic acid UN1764	79-43-6	<$&79436[-]>
2,4-DICHLORPHENOXYACETIC ACID	2,4-D; Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid	94-75-7	<$&94757[-]>
2-ETHYLHEXOIC ACID	Butylethylacetic acid; α-Ethylcaproic acid; 2-Ethylhexanoic acid;	149-57-5	<$&149575[-]>
FLUOROACETIC ACID	Pymonic acid; Fluoroacetate; Fluoroethanoic acid; Monofluoroacetate; Monofluoroacetic acid UN2642	144-49-0	<$&144490[-]>
FORMIC ACID	Aminic acid; Formylic acid; Hydrogen carboxylic acid; Methanoic acid UN1779	64-18-6	<$&64186[-]>
FUMARIC ACID	trans-Butenedioic acid; trans-1,2-Ethylenedicarboxylic acid; 1,2-Ethylenedicarboxylic acid	110-17-8	<$&110178[-]>
GALLIC ACID	3,4,5-Trihydroxybenzoic acid	149-91-7	<$&149917[-]>
GLYCOLIC ACID	Hydroxyacetic acid; Hydroxyethanoic acid	79-14-1	<$&79141[-]>
HEPTANOIC ACID	n-Heptoic acid; Heptylic acid; 1-Hexanecarboxylic acid; Oenanthic acid; Oenanthylic acid	111-14-8	<$&111148[-]>
ISOBUTYRIC ACID	Dimethylacetic acid; Isopropylformic acid; 2-Methylpropanoic acid; 2-Methylpropionic acid UN2529	79-31-2	<$&79312[-]>
ISOPHTHALIC ACID	Benzene-1,3-dicarboxylic acid; m-Benzenedicarboxylic acid; m-Phthalic acid	121-91-5	<$&121915[-]>
LAURIC ACID	Dodecanoic acid; Dodecoic acid; Duodecylic acid; Laurostearic acid; 1-Undecanecarboxylic acid	143-07-7	<$&143077[-]>
MALEIC ACID	cis-Butenedioic acid; cis-1,2-Ethylenedicarboxylic acid; 1,2-Ethylenedicarboxylic acid; Maleinic acid; Malenic acid; Toxilic acid	110-16-7	<$&110167[-]>
MALEIC ANHYDRIDE	cis-Butenedioic anhydride; 2,5-Furandione; Maleic acid anhydride; Toxilic anhydride UN2215	108-31-6	<$&108316[-]>
MALONIC ACID	Carboxyacetic acid; Dicarboxymethane; Methanedicarboxylic acid; Propanedioic acid	141-82-2	<$&141822[-]>
MANDELIC ACID	α-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid; α-Hydroxy-a-toluic acid; Paramandelic acid; Phenylglycolic acid; Phenylhydroxyacetic acid	90-64-2	<$&90642[-]>
METHACRYLIC ACID	Methacrylic acid; 2-Methylpropenoic acid UN2531	79-41-4	<$&79414[-]>
NONANOIC ACID	n-Nonylic acid; 1-Octanecarboxylic acid; Pelargonic acid	112-05-0	<$&112050[-]>
9-OCTADECENOIC ACID	cis-9-Octadecenoic acid; 9,10-Octadecenoic acid; Oleic acid; Oleinic acid	112-80-1	<$&112801[-]>
OXALIC ACID	Ethanedioic acid; Ethanedionic acid	144-62-7	<$&144627[-]>
PALMITIC ACID	Cetylic acid; Hexadecanoic acid; n-hexadecoic acid; Hexadecylic acid; 1-Pentadecanecarboxylic acid	57-10-3	<$&57103[-]>
PHTHALIC ACID	Benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid; o-benzenedicarboxylic acid; 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid; o-Dicarboxybenzene; o-Phthalic acid	88-99-3	<$&88993[-]>
PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE	1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid anhydride; 1,3-Dioxophthalan; 1,3-Isobenzofurandione; Phthalandione; 1,3-Phthalandione; Phthalic acid anhydride UN2214	85-44-9	<$&85449[-]>
PIVALIC ACID	2,2-Dimethylpropanoic acid; α,α-Dimethylpropionic acid; 2,2-Dimethylpropionic acid; Neopentanoic acid; tert-Pentanoic acid; Propanoic acid; Trimethylacetic acid	75-98-9	<$&75989[-]>
PROPIONIC ACID	Carboxyethane; Ethanecarboxylic acid; Ethylformic acid; Metacetonic acid; Methyl acetic acid; Propanoic acid UN1848	79-09-4	<$&79094[-]>
PROPIONIC ANHYDRIDE	Methylacetic anhydride; Propanoic anhydride; Propionic acid anhydride; Propionyl oxide UN2496	123-62-6	<$&123626[-]>
p-tert-BUTYL BENZOIC ACID	p-TBBA	98-73-7	<$&98737[-]>
p-TOLUENESULPHONIC ACID	p-Methylbenzenesulfonic acid; 4-Methylbenzenesulfonic acid; p-Methylphenylsulfonic acid; Toluenesulfonic acid; 4-Toluenesulfonic acid	104-15-4	<$&104154[-]>
SALICYLIC ACID	o-Hydroxybenzoic acid; 2-Hydroxybenzoic acid; Orthohydroxybenzoic acid	69-72-7	<$&69727[-]>
STEARIC ACID	Cetylacetic acid; 1-Heptadecanecarboxylic acid; Octadecanoic acid	57-11-4	<$&57114[-]>
SUCCINIC ACID	butanedioic acid; 1,2-Ethanedicarboxylic acid; Ethylenesuccinic acid	110-15-6	<$&110156[-]>
SULPHANILIC-ACID	p-Aminobenzenesulphonic acid; 4-Aminobenzenesulphonic acid; p-Aminophenylsulphonic acid; Aniline-p-sulphonic acid; Aniline-4-sulphonic acid	121-57-3	<$&121573[-]>
TARTARIC ACID	2,3-Dihydrosuccinic acid; 2,3-Dihydroxybutanedioic acid; Threaric acid	87-69-4	<$&87694[-]>
TEREPHTHALIC ACID	p-Benzenedicarboxylic acid; 1,4-Benzenedicarboxylic acid	100-21-0	<$&100210[-]>
TRICHLORACETIC ACID	TCA UN1839 UN2564	76-03-9	<$&76039[-]>
TRICHLOROPHENOXYACETIC ACID	2,4,5-T	93-76-5	<$&93765[-]>
TRIFLUOROACETIC ACID	Perfluoroacetic acid; Trifluoroethanoic acid; TFA UN2699	76-05-1	<$&76051[-]>
TRIMELLIC ACID ANHYDRIDE	4-Carboxyphthalic anhydride; 1,3-Dioxo-5-Phthalancarboxylic acid; 5-Phthalanacarboxylic acid; 1,2,4-Benzenetricarboxylic anhydride	552-30-7	<$&552307[-]>
VALERIC ACID	Butanecarboxylic acid; 1-Butanecarboxylic acid; Pentanoic acid; Propylacetic acid	109-52-4	<$&109524[-]>

Melting Point (ºC)

10^- ⁵

Published in Preface

Thursday, 09 June 2011 12:20

Preventing Neurotoxicity at Work

A worker not exposed to a neurotoxic substance will never develop any adverse neurotoxic health effects from that substance. Zero exposure leads to total protection against neurotoxic health effects. This is the essence of all primary prevention measures.

Toxicity Testing

New chemical compounds introduced into the workplace and in occupational settings should have already been tested for neurotoxicity. Failure to do pre-market toxicity testing can lead to workers’ contact and potentially severe adverse health effects. The introduction of methyl n-butyl ketone into a workplace in the United States is a classic example of the possible hazards of untested neurotoxicants being introduced into the workplace (Spencer and Schaumburg 1980).

Engineering Controls

Engineering controls (e.g., ventilation systems, closed production facilities) are the best means for keeping workers’ exposures below permissible exposure limits. Closed chemical processes that keep all toxicants from being released into the workplace environment are the ideal. If this is not possible, closed ventilation systems that exhaust ambient air vapours and are designed so as to pull contaminated air away from workers are useful when well designed, adequately maintained, and properly operated.

Personal Protection Equipment

In situations where engineering controls are unavailable to reduce workers’ contact with neurotoxicants, personal protective equipment must be provided. Because workplace neurotoxicants are many, and routes of exposure differ across workplaces and work conditions, the kind of personal protective equipment must be carefully selected for the situation at hand. For example, the neurotoxicant lead can exert its toxicity when lead-laden dust is breathed and when lead particles are ingested in food or water. Therefore, personal protective equipment must protect against both routes of exposure. This would mean respiratory protection equipment and adoption of personal hygiene measures to prevent consumption of lead-contaminated food or beverages. For many neurotoxicants (like industrial solvents), absorption of the substance through intact skin is a main route of exposure. Impermeable gloves, aprons and other appropriate equipment must therefore be provided to prevent skin absorption. This would be in addition to engineering controls or personal respiratory protection equipment. Considerable planning must be given to match personal protective equipment to the specific work being performed.

Administrative Controls

Administrative controls consist of managerial efforts to reduce workplace hazards through planning, training, employee rotation on job sites, changes in production processes, and product substitution (Urie 1992), as well as strict adherence to all existing regulations.
Workers’ Right-to-Know

While the employer bears the responsibility for providing a workplace or work experience that does not harm workers’ health, workers have the responsibility to follow workplace rules that are intended to protect them. Workers must be in a position to know what actions to take in protecting themselves. This means workers have the right to know about the neurotoxicity of substances with which they come into contact, and what protective measures they can take.

Worker Health Surveillance

Where conditions permit, workers should be regularly given medical examinations. A regular evaluation by occupational physicians or other medical specialists constitutes worker health surveillance. For workers known to be working with or around neurotoxicants, physicians should be knowledgeable of the effects of exposure. For example, low-level exposure to many organic solvents will produce symptoms of fatigue, sleep disorders, headaches and memory disturbances. For heavy doses of lead, wrist drop and peripheral nerve impairment would be signs of lead intoxication. Any signs and symptoms of neurotoxicant intoxication should result in reassignment of the worker to an area free of the neurotoxicant, and efforts to reduce workplace levels of the neurotoxicant.

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Published in 7. Nervous System

Friday, 20 May 2011 13:09

Emergency and Security Services

Emergency and security services exist to deal with extraordinary and threatening situations. The people who work in such services are therefore confronted with events and circumstances that lie outside the usual experience of human beings in their daily lives. Although each of the occupations has its own set of hazards, risks and traditions, they share several features in common. These include the following:

long periods of relative quiet or routine interrupted abruptly by periods of intense psychological stress
long periods of relative inactivity interrupted abruptly by periods of intense physical activity
rigid codes of behaviour and high expectations for performance, often accompanied by detailed orders for how to do the job and high penalties for failure
personal danger; the worker allows himself or herself to be exposed to hazards that are unusual for anyone else in the community
a primary objective of rescuing or protecting others who are not able to save themselves
a secondary objective of protecting property from destruction or damage
teamwork under demanding conditions
a rigid hierarchy or “chain of command” to reduce uncertainty and to make sure that procedures are followed correctly.

The form of organization and the means by which the mission of these services is carried out varies. The circumstances of the mission of a service affect the attitude and approach to the job; these differences are perhaps best understood by considering the object of control for each emergency service.

Firefighting is perhaps the most representative emergency and security service. This occupation arose historically as a way to limit property damage from fires, and started as a private service in which fire-fighters might save the businesses and houses of persons who paid insurance premiums but would let the property of others burn, even if they were right next door. Soon, society determined that private fire services were inefficient and that it would be much more practical and useful to make them public. Thus, firefighting became a municipal or local government function in most parts of the world. Private firefighting services still exist in industry, at airports and in other settings where they are coordinated with municipal services. In general, fire-fighters enjoy a great deal of trust and respect in their communities. In firefighting, the object of control, or the “enemy”, is the fire; it is an external threat. When a fire-fighter is injured on the job, it is perceived as the result of an external agent, although it might be an indirect assault if the fire were set by an arsonist.

Police services and the military are given the responsibility by society to maintain order, generally in response to an internal threat (such as crime) or to an external threat (such as war). Armed force is the essential means of accomplishing the mission, and the use of appropriate tactics and investigative techniques (whether criminal investigation or military intelligence) is standard procedure. Because of the high potential for abuse and misuse of force, society in general has imposed strict limitations on how force is used, especially toward civilians. Police especially are watched more closely than other emergency and security personnel to ensure that they use their monopoly on force correctly. This sometimes leads to the perception by police officers that they are not trusted. For the police and for soldiers, the object of control, or the “enemy”, is another human being. This creates many situations of uncertainty, feelings of guilt and questions about rights and proper behaviour that fire-fighters do not have to face. When police or soldiers are injured in the line of duty, it is usually the direct result of intentional human action taken against them.

Paramedical and rescue personnel are responsible for recovering, stabilizing and rendering initial treatment to people who are injured, ill or trapped in circumstances from which they cannot escape by themselves. Often they work side by side with fire-fighters and police. For them, the object of control is the patient or victim whom they are trying to help; the victim is not an “enemy”. Moral and ethical issues in these occupations are most prominent when the victim is partially responsible for his or her condition, as when a driver is intoxicated by alcohol or a patient refuses to take medication. Sometimes, victims who are not rational or who are angry or under stress may act in an abusive or threatening way. This is confusing and frustrating for paramedical and rescue personnel, who feel that they are doing their best under difficult circumstances. When one of these workers is injured on the job, it is perceived as almost a betrayal, because they were trying to help the victim.

Hazardous materials response teams are often part of fire services and have a similar organization on a small scale. They evaluate and take initial steps to control chemical or physical hazards that may present a threat to the public. Hazardous waste remediation workers are less tightly organized that these other occupations and exist to clean up a problem that has been around for a while. In both cases, the workers are dealing with a potential hazard in which the fundamental problem is uncertainty. Unlike the other occupations, in which it was clear who or what was the object of control, these workers are controlling a risk that may be difficult to identify. Even when the chemical or hazard is known, the future risk of cancer or disease is usually uncertain. Workers often cannot know whether they have been injured on the job because the effects of exposure to chemicals may not be known for many years.

Potential Occupational Hazards

The common hazard to all of these workers is psychogenic stress. In particular, they are all subject to so-called critical events, which are situations perceived to be of grave or uncertain but probably serious danger that a person cannot escape. Unlike a member of the general public, a worker in one of these occupations cannot simply walk away or leave the scene. Much of their own sense of self-esteem comes from how they handle just such situations. For workers who survive critical events, there is often a period of denial followed by a period of depression and distracted behaviour. Thoughts of what the worker has seen and a sense of guilt or inadequacy intrude on his or her thinking. It is difficult to concentrate, and the worker may have nightmares. The worst critical events are generally considered to be those in which victims have died because of a mistake or because it was not possible for the rescuer to save them, in spite of his or her best efforts.

Many of these occupations also involve the rescue and stabilization of people who may be ill with communicable diseases. The infections that most commonly present a problem are AIDS and HIV infection generally, hepatitis B and C and tuberculosis. HIV and hepatitis B and C viruses are both transmitted by human body fluids and may therefore pose a hazard to emergency response personnel when there is bleeding or if the worker is deliberately bitten. Emergency response personnel are now usually trained to consider all subjects (victims or criminals) as potentially infected and infective. HIV precautions are described elsewhere. Tuberculosis is transmitted by sputum and by coughing. The risk is particularly great during the resuscitation of persons with active cavitary tuberculosis, an increasingly frequent problem in economically disadvantaged inner city areas.

Injury is a risk common to all of these occupations. Fires are always unsafe, and the hazards of the fire itself may be combined with the risk of structures breaking apart, unstable floors, falling objects and falls from a height. Violence is a more common hazard of police and military combat services, obviously, because that is what they were created to control. However, aside from intentional violence there is a potential for hazards from traumatic incidents involving automotive traffic, mishandling of weapons and, especially in the military, occupational injuries in support areas. Hazardous materials workers may deal with a variety of unknown chemicals which may have a hazard of explosion or fire in addition to their toxic properties.

These occupations vary greatly in their potential for health problems. Aside from stress-related outcomes and the potential for communicable diseases mentioned, each occupation is different in its health concerns.

Preventive Guidelines

Each occupation differs in its approach to prevention. However, there are a few measures that are common to all or most of them.

Many services now require their workers to go through a process called critical event debriefing following such incidents. During these debriefings, the workers discuss the event in the presence of a trained mental health worker-how they feel about it, and their feelings about their own actions. Critical event debriefing has been shown to be very effective in preventing later problems, such as post-traumatic stress syndrome, following critical events.

Rigorous fitness screening at the time of hire is usually part of the selection process for police and fire personnel, and many services require these members to stay fit through regular exercise and training. This is intended to ensure satisfactory and consistent performance, but it has the additional effect of reducing the likelihood of injuries.

Infectious hazards are difficult to anticipate because victims may not show outward signs of infection. Emergency response personnel are now taught to use “universal precautions” in handling body fluids and to use protective equipment such as gloves and safety eyeglasses if there is a risk of coming into contact with body fluids. Often, however, such events are unpredictable or difficult to control if the victim is violent or irrational. Routine immunization with hepatitis B vaccine is advised where the risk is high. Disposable resuscitation equipment is recommended to reduce the risk of transmitting communicable diseases. Special care should be taken with needles and other sharp objects. Human bites should be cleaned thoroughly and treatment given with penicillin or a penicillin-like drug. When HIV infection has been confirmed in the person who was the source, or contamination and transmission may have taken place by needlestick or invasive contact with blood or body fluids, a physician’s advice should be sought about the advisability of prescribing antiviral drugs that reduce the chance of infection in the worker. Tuberculosis infection in an exposed worker can be confirmed by skin test and then treated prophylactically before it becomes a serious disease.

Other preventive measures are specific to the particular occupations.

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Published in 95. Emergency and Security Services

Tuesday, 03 May 2011 10:33

Excerpts from the Preface to the Third Edition (1983)

The decision to publish the second edition of the Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety was taken some 15 years ago, and its preparation lasted throughout the years 1966 to 1971. Since then a great deal of progress has been made in the knowledge and activities covered by this publication. Side by side with technological progress there have been great advances in methods of identifying, evaluating and controlling occupational hazards and providing health protection in the workplace. Toxic substances, dust in industry, mineral fibres, non-ionising radiation, allergy and occupationally induced cancer have been the subject of intensive experimental research and important epidemiological studies. Nevertheless, the changes that took place in working environments in the 1970s were not due merely to wider technical knowledge and awareness. A new trend began to take shape: the workers’ claim for a better quality of life at work and the increasing involvement of trade unions in health and safety protection in the workplace, the fuller support by employers of comprehensive occupational health and safety programmes and increasing efforts by governments to apply far-reaching measures in this field. This trend has been reflected in national and international legislation concerning the working environment and working conditions, which has advanced to an unprecedented extent. Thus the panorama of occupational health and safely, industrial hygiene and ergonomics has undergone profound changes in many member countries of the ILO, not only as regards the state of the art, but also as regards the practical application of these disciplines in the workplace…

It is 63 years since the ILO first established as one of its basic objectives “the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment”. The objective is still the same, but the form and methods of this protection have evolved along with technical progress and economic development… International dissemination of the most recent scientific and practical knowledge in this field is an integral part of ILO activity—together with the traditional modes of action: standard-setting and technical co-operation—to promote the increased effectiveness of health and safety protection at work throughout the world. The new edition of the Encyclopaedia will make an important contribution to that great endeavour.

Francis Blanchard
Director-General
International Labour Office
Geneva, 1983

Published in Preface

Tuesday, 03 May 2011 10:31

Excerpts from the Preface to the Second Edition (1971)

Occupational accidents and diseases remain the most appalling human tragedy of modern industry and one of its most serious forms of economic waste. The best estimates currently available on a world basis reckon the number of fatal injuries at the workplace at close to 100,000 annually. In some highly industrialised countries industrial accidents are responsible for the loss of four or five times as many working days as industrial disputes. In certain cases their cost is comparable to that of national defence. Industrialisation and the mechanisation of agriculture have made the problem acute in a much wider range of countries and occupations.

The economic burden on the community cannot be expressed in compensation costs alone. It also includes loss of production, disruption of production schedules, damage to productive equipment and—in the case of large-scale accidents—major social dislocations. But the economic burden is by no means the full measure of the human cost…
Originally, the main thrust of preventive action was to improve the unhealthiest working conditions and remedy the appalling lack of physical protection against the most dangerous occupational hazards. The first international standards were designed either to do away with the more flagrant abuses impairing health, such as the employment of very young children, over-long hours of work, the absence of any form of maternity protection, and night work by women and children, or to combat the risks most commonly encountered by industrial workers—anthrax, and lead or chronic phosphorus poisoning.

When the ILO passed beyond formulating these basic standards to grapple with the problem of social security, the first question it considered was compensation for occupational accidents and diseases. Workmen’s compensation legislation already existed in many countries; it was developed on the basis of ILO standards and its financial implications gave a powerful impetus to preventive measures. The ILO did much to bring about the standardisation of industrial injury and occupational disease statistics and the systematic collection of data on accident frequency…
Gradually this concentration of attention upon the most flagrant abuses and the highest accident and disease rates broadened into a more comprehensive approach designed to promote the highest standards of safety and health in all industries and occupations. The monumental Model Code of Safety Regulations for Industrial Establishments for the Guidance of Governments and Industry, first issued in 1949 on the basis of work initiated during the Second World War and periodically revised since, was an important step in this direction. It furnished an impetus which has now found expression in a wide range of codes of practice and guides to practice which are complementary to it. In the 1950s this broader approach was reflected in new comprehensive international standards for the protection of workers’ health, welfare facilities and occupational health services.

In the 1960s these were supplemented by a new series of specific provisions dealing with particular risks which had assumed increased importance. In factories, one accident in six is caused by machinery; hence the importance of international standards on the guarding of moving parts which regulate not only the use, sale and hire of machinery having dangerous parts but also its manufacture…

Modern industrial medicine has outgrown the stage where it merely involved first aid in the event of an accident and the diagnosis of occupational diseases; nowadays it is concerned with all the effects of work upon physical and mental health, and even with the impact of man’s physical or psychological disabilities upon his work…

Technological progress now moves far more swiftly than it did 40 years ago. There is every reason to believe that the pace will quicken still further. This second edition of the Encyclopaedia will therefore be merely the next stage in our work. But each stage is the indispensable foundation for its successor. During the coming years the Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety will be an essential tool for humanising the working environment and improving the lot of workers the world over. In human and economic terms alike higher health and safety standards are a primary responsibility of enlightened social policy and efficient management. Neither can be effective without the comprehensive body of knowledge necessary to appraise the relevance of current information to policy and action. The present Encyclopaedia, which was prepared under the technical responsibility of Dr. Luigi Parmeggiani, Chief of the Occupational Safety and Health Branch, is designed to make readily accessible to all the comprehensive knowledge of these matters which is now available. In editing the Encyclopaedia, Dr. Parmeggiani has worthily maintained the traditions established by Dr. Luigi Carozzi, who laid the foundations of the industrial health work of the ILO.

Wilfred Jenks
Director-General
International Labour Office
Geneva, 1971

Published in Preface

Tuesday, 03 May 2011 10:29

Excerpts from the Preface to the First Edition (1930)

In 1919 the International Labour Conference at Washington requested the International Labour Office “to draw up a list of the principal processes to be considered as unhealthy”. But it was impossible in practice to draw up such a list, at least in a complete or final form, on account of the number and complexity of the operations which in some aspects could be considered unhealthy, the continuous evolution of industrial technique which does away with causes of disease in one direction, while giving rise to fresh possibilities of disease in another, and the indefinite character of the conception of “unhealthiness” which varies at different times and in different countries.

These considerations led to the idea of substituting for the list of unhealthy processes requested by the Conference, a sort of encyclopaedia which would analyse from the triple point of view of the work to be done, the worker employed, and the environment in which he worked, the various tasks involved in human labour, the properties of the substances dealt with, the operations involved in handling and working up these substances, the possible sources and carriers of intoxication and disease, the statistical data on the effects as far as known, the symptoms, the diagnosis, the therapeutic and prophylactic treatment, and the protective legislation already in existence.
It was a difficult task, and one which was bound to be open to the reproach of being neither complete nor final. But how could it be otherwise? No one can hope to fix once for all something which is living, evolving, progressive. Although, as was mentioned above, the evolution of technical practice in industry may create new dangers for the worker every day, yet the progress of this same technique and of industrial hygiene may, on the following day, do away with certain existing dangers, which must, notwithstanding, be recorded and analysed in this work. One of the virtues of this work is just the fact that it is not final. It seizes one moment in social life and in the progress of industrial hygiene, but it requires to be kept constantly up to date precisely because it is a scientific as well as a practical work.

This is its dual nature, as it is that of every piece of research undertaken by the International Labour Office, the strict purpose of which is to make science the servant of practical action. This Encyclopaedia is not a work of pure propaganda; it never sacrifices scientific objectivity to the ideas which the authors naturally have at heart. On the other hand, it is not purely a treatise on medicine or hygiene; it claims no originality in the treatment of the various questions; it does not claim to be an exhaustive study; on each subject it merely gives a summary of the existing position of science, with figures taken from statistics for the sake of example and not in support of any argument. It has tried to keep a middle path between a purely scientific work intended for the expert, and a popular manual. It is meant to supply workers, employers, their organisations, and practising doctors with the information necessary to enable them to discover, combat, and prevent occupational diseases, the economic consequences of which are as harmful to production as their social consequences are to the world of labour…

…The International Labour Office, in collaborating with these scientists for some years, has obtained a clearer consciousness of the scope of its mission. The Preamble to Part Xlll of the Peace Treaty [of Versailles] included among the urgent tasks of the Office the protection of workers “against sickness, disease and injury arising out of their employment”. The signatory States, in agreeing to this statement of principle, seem to have accepted the dictum of Beaconsfield that the health of the people is the most important of all problems. The Office has put at the disposal of those concerned a statement up to the actual position of science and has conveyed to the legislator the elements of physiology and physio-pathology necessary to him for setting up a code of industrial health; by collecting and concentrating this information in one work, and thereby increasing its range and appeal, the Office is continuing the work of those who, since the inception of “large-scale” industry, have endeavoured to protect human life, openly or insidiously menaced by new technical processes…

In ancient societies, dangerous and disagreeable tasks were reserved for criminals. Fourier, for all his fertile imagination, dared not foresee that the progress of industrial technique would one day lead to the suppression of unhealthy or dangerous occupations: he reserved filthy or dangerous work for his “small gangs”. Nowadays the problem is entirely different: the conscience of modern society realises that occupational diseases should not be reserved for certain persons, but that they should be made to disappear. The origins and the causes are now known, and all that is wanted is will and organisation. There are plenty of other sufferings and plenty of other infirmities to which mortals are exposed. As Puccinotti has said: “Life must be preserved for labour, and labour must be made harmless to life”. …

Albert Thomas
Director-General
International Labour Office
Geneva, 1930

Published in Preface

Tuesday, 03 May 2011 10:26

Preface to the Fourth Edition (1998)

It is a sobering thought that the prefaces to the preceding editions of this Encyclopaedia are still timely: occupational illnesses and injuries remain an unnecessary blight on the human landscape. Much progress has been made since the publication of the first edition of this work. Exposure to some extremely dangerous poisons, such as the deadly radium painted on watch faces to make them glow in the dark, or the crippling and disfiguring phosphorus that had been used as the combustible material in matches, have been completely eradicated. Governments have established regulations and have undertaken many noteworthy actions to guard against the entirely preventable tragedies of occupational death, disease and disability. The level of knowledge among all our constituents is vastly improved. The ILO itself has contributed to this progress with Conventions, Recommendations and Codes of Practice governing many workplace conditions, as well as with its many technical cooperation programmes and specialized publications. Equally important, the capability of medicine, science and engineering to solve problems, and to provide better means of recognition and of hazard prevention has dramatically increased. Social systems are in place for worker protection and for worker participation in decisions relating to their work environments.

Yet, despite tireless efforts to promote better working conditions, the ILO and others must still combat many forms of exploitation of working people, such as child labour, indentured servitude and clandestine work, with their inevitably hazardous and oppressive conditions. Tens of millions of others labour while exposed to chemical, physical and social hazards which drain their health and their spirits. Solutions to such problems of occupational injury and illness will not arise simply from issuing publications or obtaining advice from experts. The health and well-being of workers is an issue of social justice and the ILO stands above all for the ideal of promoting social justice in the world. Ultimately solutions are social as much as technical. It is not merely the lack of know-how that perpetuates the toll of death, disability and disease in the working population, it is the lack of the social means and the social will to do something about it. The societal basis for occupational safety and health is perhaps the most important reason for the ILO to publish the Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety. With its publication we present a panorama of the problems, and their technical and social solutions: we define the fields for action.

The Encyclopaedia’s popularity and influence have been enormous. Tens of thousands of copies have been in use throughout the greater part of this century. Earlier editions have been published in Spanish, French, Russian, Chinese, Hungarian and Serbo-Croatian. The Encyclopaedia is the most widely distributed publication of the ILO. The process of compiling the fourth edition has continued the tradition of reaching out to world experts, which the Office sees as essential to its continued growth and relevance. We have assembled a network of more than 2,000 specialists from over 65 countries who have extensively contributed their time, energy and expertise to the writing and reviewing of articles and the editing of chapters. Most major health and safety institutions, governmental, academic or private, from around the world, are contributing in one form or another to this immense undertaking, an act of generosity and support for which we are grateful. The hope and the intent is that this Encyclopaedia provide technical, theoretical and ethical underpinnings to the ongoing work of achieving the goal of social justice in a global economy.

Michel Hansenne
Director-General
International Labour Office
Geneva, 1998

Published in Preface

Tuesday, 03 May 2011 10:16

Foreword to the Encyclopedia, Fourth Edition (1998)

No one profession holds the key to understanding and solving the problems of work-related hazards. The field of occupational safety and health is truly multidisciplinary.

The intent of the fourth edition of the International Labour Organization’s Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety is to present a panoramic view of the basic available information in the field. But what comprises the “field”? Let us consider an example.

How might a group of various experts approach health and safety issues that relate to long-term use of visual display units (VDUs), the now familiar computer screens? A physician, charged with the occupational health service for a group of VDU workers, might tend to schedule medical exams to look for signs and symptoms of physical illness. Eye examinations would be one logical component. VDU-specific eyeglasses might be one solution. The epidemiologist, on the other hand, would confront the problem statistically. She would want to gather data on the results of the examinations of a group of VDU workers and compare them to workers who did not engage in VDU work, in order to determine the relative risks of the job for various health outcomes. The occupational hygienist would focus on the environment and might measure the lighting levels or test for particular contaminants. The ergonomist could orient towards the design of the equipment itself and study the physical interactions between the machine and the worker. The psychologist would look towards organizational factors—the social structure in the workplace—concentrating on issues such as job demands, job control and electronic performance monitoring, while the basic researcher might be more interested in experiments on the biological mechanisms that could ultimately explain any effects observed. The educator might develop training materials for helping workers function optimally on the job. The trade unionist and the employer may be interested in the application of principles of occupational health to conditions of employment and contractual agreements. Finally, the lawyer and the government regulator might be considering still other pragmatic issues, such as compensation for injuries, or “proving” possible health effects for establishing workplace regulation.

Each of these approaches is a valid and important aspect of occupational health and safety and each complements the other. No one profession holds the key to understanding and solving the problems of work-related hazards. The “field” of occupational safety and health is truly multidisciplinary.

Multidisciplinarity is challenging to the encyclopaedia editor. Facts may be neutral, but the way in which they are comprehended, interpreted and applied is culture bound, where by culture we mean the integrated pattern of human belief, behaviour and knowledge. In technical fields, culture will be a reflection of the basic discipline of training, as well as of personal philosophy. Not only will what you are—a lawyer, hygienist, trade unionist or physician—guide your thinking, but who you are—whether you are a representative of government, labour or management, for example—will inevitably influence your perceptions of the universe, its demands, its effects. Where you developed your expertise will also matter, since the philosophical and practical underpinnings of science and medicine, too, are culture bound and hence not the same throughout the world. At the very least you will be bound by the realities of available resources and this will inevitably alter your perspective. A seasoned professional attempts to minimize such biases, but one look at the real world shows how pervasive they are.

The problems of multidisciplinarity have not been solved in this Encyclopaedia, and probably will never completely be solved anywhere, but a pragmatic approach has been developed here. The Encyclopaedia has been developed in parts, sections and chapters which correspond to the various disciplines that comprise occupational health and safety. It has been designed to provide the general user with background information on the major disciplines of occupational health and safety in an understandable manner that will, at the same time, be considered rigorous by professionals in those fields. We have attempted to provide sufficient depth and breadth of coverage to permit workers in one area to appreciate and be stimulated by the ideas and approaches of other disciplines in occupational health and safety. We have endeavoured to make the descriptions of hazard recognition and control as straightforward as possible, with a minimum of jargon. The overall structures is:

Volume I

The Body and Health Care take a medical approach and provides information on disease, its detection and prevention, and occupational health services and health promotional activities.
Prevention, Management and Policy covers legal, ethical and social policy aspects of the field, as well as educational and informational and institutional resources.
Tools and Approaches provides insight into the disciplines which comprise the study and application of occupational health and safety: engineering, ergonomics, occupational hygiene, epidemiology and statistics and laboratory research.

Volume II

Hazards spans the range of chemical, physical and social hazards, accidents and safety management methods that may be encountered around the world. The nature of the hazard is detailed, together with technical information on its recognition, evaluation and control.

Volume III

Chemicals presents basic data on use in industry and chemical, physical and toxicological properties information on more than 2,000 chemicals categorized by chemical family
Industries and Occupations takes a “how things work” and “how to control hazards” approach to all the major industries. The hazards associated with a variety of occupations which span several industrial sectors are presented in a hazard card format.

Volume IV

Indexes and Guides provides a how-to-use the Encyclopaedia guide; lists of tables and figures and collaborating institutions; and indexes of chemical substances, cross-references, subjects and authors cited.

Several thousand internationally recognized experts have been called upon to be writers and reviewers of this Encyclopaedia. They have been drawn from virtually all the major institutions around the world and we have attempted to assure that international perspectives are represented because such perspectives are not the same everywhere and it is the responsibility of the International Labour Organization to promote the free interchange of different conceptualizations. Further, problems and solutions vary around the globe and it makes good sense to seek out the expertise of those who personally know and understand the issues.

In this Encyclopaedia we have planted an occupational health and safety garden with facts, figures and interpretations to assist in the blossoming of safe and healthful working conditions around the world. The seeds have been sown in more or less orderly disciplinary groupings, so that the reader, once becoming familiar with the garden paths, can create any bouquet of facts that she or he wants. The indexes in the fourth volume provide a more detailed map, including a valuable index guide to the essential cross-referencing of information. The experienced reader will soon learn what is planted where and will be able to make his way along a favoured route.

The electronic version of this work has additional navigational aids, with its built-in hyperlinks and specialized search facilities. By judicious creation of searches, the astute CD-ROM user could even plant an entirely new and rearranged garden of his or her own.

The Encyclopaedia is not, of course, one hundred per cent complete. Isolated facts are missing. Some notions may be outdated even before we go to press. This is the sign of an active and creative field of human endeavour. This Encyclopaedia could not have been written without the countless hours of work of individuals from around the world. The reader will find the names of our collaborators in the lists of authors and editors, and in the Directory of Experts which is published in the electronic version of this work. Most of these individuals came to the effort with the full support and assistance of the institutions with which they were affiliated. Volume IV contains a non-exhaustive list of these collaborating institutions, as well.

We are grateful for the extensive support in this worldwide effort. Of course, the individual viewpoints presented are ultimately those of the authors and not of their institutions or the International Labour Office. We hope that the compendium of ideas presented here will hasten the day in which occupational death and disease is a rarity in the world.

Jeanne Mager Stellman
Editor-in-Chief
Geneva, 1998

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Contents