Wednesday, 02 March 2011 16:10

Tuberculosis Prevention, Control and Surveillance

Rate this item
(0 votes)

Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a recognized risk in health care facilities. The magnitude of the risk to HCWs varies considerably by the type of health care facility, the prevalence of TB in the community, the patient population served, the HCW’s occupational group, the area of the health care facility in which the HCW works and the effectiveness of TB infection-control interventions. The risk may be higher in areas where patients with TB are provided care before diagnosis and initiation of TB treatment and isolation precautions (e.g., in clinic waiting areas and emergency departments) or where diagnostic or treatment procedures that stimulate coughing are performed. Nosocomial transmission of M. tuberculosis has been associated with close contact with persons who have infectious TB and with the performance of certain procedures (e.g., bronchoscopy, endotracheal intubation and suctioning, open abscess irrigation and autopsy). Sputum induction and aerosol treatments that induce coughing may also increase the potential for transmission of M. tuberculosis. Personnel in health care facilities should be particularly alert to the need for preventing transmission of M. tuberculosis in those facilities in which immunocompromised persons (e.g., HIV-infected persons) work or receive care—especially if cough-inducing procedures, such as sputum induction and aerosolized pentamidine treatments, are being performed.

Transmission and Pathogenesis

M. tuberculosis is carried in airborne particles, or droplet nuclei, that can be generated when persons who have pulmonary or laryngeal TB sneeze, cough, speak or sing. The particles are an estimated 1 to 5 μm in size and normal air currents can keep them airborne for prolonged time periods and spread them throughout a room or building. Infection occurs when a susceptible person inhales droplet nuclei containing M. tuberculosis and these droplet nuclei traverse the mouth or nasal passages, upper respiratory tract and bronchi to reach the alveoli of the lungs. Once in the alveoli, the organisms are taken up by alveolar macrophages and spread throughout the body. Usually within two to ten weeks after initial infection with M. tuberculosis, the immune response limits further multiplication and spread of the tubercle bacilli; however, some of the bacilli remain dormant and viable for many years. This condition is referred to as latent TB infection. Persons with latent TB infection usually have positive purified protein derivative (PPD)-tuberculin skin-test results, but they do not have symptoms of active TB, and they are not infectious.

In general, persons who become infected with M. tuberculosis have approximately a 10% risk for developing active TB during their lifetimes. This risk is greatest during the first two years after infection. Immunocompromised persons have a greater risk for the progression of latent TB infection to active TB disease; HIV infection is the strongest known risk factor for this progression. Persons with latent TB infection who become co-infected with HIV have approximately an 8 to 10% risk per year for developing active TB. HIV-infected persons who are already severely immunosuppressed and who become newly infected with M. tuberculosis have an even greater risk for developing active TB.

The probability that a person who is exposed to M. tuberculosis will become infected depends primarily on the concentration of infectious droplet nuclei in the air and the duration of exposure. Characteristics of the TB patient that enhance transmission include:

  • disease in the lungs, airways or larynx
  • presence of cough or other forceful expiratory measures
  • presence of acid-fast bacilli (AFB) in the sputum
  • failure of the patient to cover the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing
  • presence of cavitation on chest radiograph
  • inappropriate or short duration of chemotherapy
  • administration of procedures that can induce coughing or cause aerosolization of M. tuberculosis (e.g., sputum induction).

 

Environmental factors that enhance the likelihood of transmission include:

  • exposure in relatively small, enclosed spaces
  • inadequate local or general ventilation that results in insufficient dilution and/or removal of infectious droplet nuclei
  • recirculation of air containing infectious droplet nuclei.

 

Characteristics of the persons exposed to M. tuberculosis that may affect the risk for becoming infected are not as well defined. In general, persons who have been infected previously with M. tuberculosis may be less susceptible to subsequent infection. However, reinfection can occur among previously infected persons, especially if they are severely immunocompromised. Vaccination with Bacille of Calmette and Guérin (BCG) probably does not affect the risk for infection; rather, it decreases the risk for progressing from latent TB infection to active TB. Finally, although it is well established that HIV infection increases the likelihood of progressing from latent TB infection to active TB, it is unknown whether HIV infection increases the risk for becoming infected if exposed to M. tuberculosis.

Epidemiology

Several TB outbreaks among persons in health care facilities have been reported recently in the United States. Many of these outbreaks involved transmission of multidrug-resistant strains of M. tuberculosis to both patients and HCWs. Most of the patients and some of the HCWs were HIV-infected persons in whom new infection progressed rapidly to active disease. Mortality associated with those outbreaks was high (with a range of 43 to 93%). Furthermore, the interval between diagnosis and death was brief (with a range of median intervals of 4 to 16 weeks). Factors contributing to these outbreaks included delayed diagnosis of TB, delayed recognition of drug resistance and delayed initiation of effective therapy, all of which resulted in prolonged infectiousness, delayed initiation and inadequate duration of TB isolation, inadequate ventilation in TB isolation rooms, lapses in TB isolation practices and inadequate precautions for cough-inducing procedures and lack of adequate respiratory protection.

Fundamentals of TB infection control

An effective TB infection-control programme requires early identification, isolation and effective treatment of persons who have active TB. The primary emphasis of the TB infection-control plan should be on achieving these three goals. In all health care facilities, particularly those in which persons who are at high risk for TB work or receive care, policies and procedures for TB control should be developed, reviewed periodically and evaluated for effectiveness to determine the actions necessary to minimize the risk for transmission of M. tuberculosis.

The TB infection-control programme should be based on a hierarchy of control measures. The first level of the hierarchy, and that which affects the largest number of persons, is using administrative measures intended primarily to reduce the risk for exposing uninfected persons to persons who have infectious TB. These measures include:

  • developing and implementing effective written policies and protocols to ensure the rapid identification, isolation, diagnostic evaluation and treatment of persons likely to have TB
  • implementing effective work practices among HCWs in the health care facility (e.g., correctly wearing respiratory protection and keeping doors to isolation rooms closed)
  • educating, training and counselling HCWs about TB
  • screening HCWs for TB infection and disease.

 

The second level of the hierarchy is the use of engineering controls to prevent the spread and reduce the concentration of infectious droplet nuclei. These controls include:

  • direct source control using local exhaust ventilation
  • controlling direction of airflow to prevent contamination of air in areas adjacent to the infectious source
  • diluting and removing contaminated air via general ventilation
  • air cleaning via air filtration or ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI).

 

The first two levels of the hierarchy minimize the number of areas in the health care facility where exposure to infectious TB may occur, and they reduce, but do not eliminate, the risk in those few areas where exposure to M. tuberculosis can still occur (e.g., rooms in which patients with known or suspected infectious TB are being isolated and treatment rooms in which cough-inducing or aerosol-generating procedures are performed on such patients). Because persons entering such rooms may be exposed to M. tuberculosis, the third level of the hierarchy is the use of personal respiratory protective equipment in these and certain other situations in which the risk for infection with M. tuberculosis may be relatively higher.

Specific measures to reduce the risk for transmission of M. tuberculosis include the following:

1.    Assigning to specific persons in the health care facility the supervisory responsibility for designing, implementing, evaluating and maintaining the TB infection-control programme.

2.    Conducting a risk assessment to evaluate the risk for transmission of M. tuberculosis in all areas of the health care facility, developing a written TB infection-control programme based on the risk assessment and periodically repeating the risk assessment to evaluate the effectiveness of the TB infection-control programme. TB infection-control measures for each health care facility should be based on a careful assessment of the risk for transmission of M. tuberculosis in that particular setting. The first step in developing the TB infection-control programme should be to conduct a baseline risk assessment to evaluate the risk for transmission of M. tuberculosis in each area and occupational group in the facility. Appropriate infection-control interventions can then be developed on the basis of actual risk. Risk assessments should be performed for all inpatient and outpatient settings (e.g., medical and dental offices). Classification of risk for a facility, for a specific area and for a specific occupational group should be based on the profile of TB in the community, the number of infectious TB patients admitted to the area or ward, or the estimated number of infectious TB patients to whom HCWs in an occupational group may be exposed and the results of analysis of HCW PPD test conversions (where applicable) and possible person-to-person transmission of M. tuberculosis. Regardless of risk level, the management of patients with known or suspected infectious TB should not vary. However, the index of suspicion for infectious TB among patients, the frequency of HCW PPD skin testing, the number of TB isolation rooms and other factors will depend on the level of risk for transmission of M. tuberculosis in the facility, area or occupational group.

3.    Developing, implementing and enforcing policies and protocols to ensure early identification, diagnostic evaluation and effective treatment of patients who may have infectious TB. A diagnosis of TB may be considered for any patient who has a persistent cough (i.e., a cough lasting for longer than 3 weeks) or other signs or symptoms compatible with active TB (e.g., bloody sputum, night sweats, weight loss, anorexia or fever). However, the index of suspicion for TB will vary in different geographic areas and will depend on the prevalence of TB and other characteristics of the population served by the facility. The index of suspicion for TB should be very high in geographic areas or among groups of patients in which the prevalence of TB is high. Appropriate diagnostic measures should be conducted and TB precautions implemented for patients in whom active TB is suspected.

4.    Providing prompt triage for and appropriate management of patients in the outpatient setting who may have infectious TB. Triage of patients in ambulatory-care settings and emergency departments should include vigorous efforts to identify promptly patients who have active TB. HCWs who are the first points of contact in facilities that serve populations at risk for TB should be trained to ask questions that will facilitate identification of patients with signs and symptoms suggestive of TB. Patients with signs or symptoms suggestive of TB should be evaluated promptly to minimize the amount of time they are in ambulatory-care areas. TB precautions should be followed while the diagnostic evaluation is being conducted for these patients. TB precautions in the ambulatory-care setting should include placing these patients in a separate area apart from other patients and not in open waiting areas (ideally, in a room or enclosure meeting TB isolation requirements), giving these patients surgical masks to wear and instructing them to keep their masks on and giving these patients tissues and instructing them to cover their mouths and noses with the tissues when coughing or sneezing. Surgical masks are designed to prevent the respiratory secretions of the person wearing the mask from entering the air. When not in a TB isolation room, patients suspected of having TB should wear surgical masks to reduce the expulsion of droplet nuclei into the air. These patients do not need to wear particulate respirators, which are designed to filter the air before it is inhaled by the person wearing the mask. Patients suspected of having or known to have TB should never wear a respirator that has an exhalation valve, because the device would provide no barrier to the expulsion of droplet nuclei into the air.

5.    Promptly initiating and maintaining TB isolation for persons who may have infectious TB and who are admitted to the inpatient setting. In hospitals and other inpatient facilities, any patient suspected of having or known to have infectious TB should be placed in a TB isolation room that has currently recommended ventilation characteristics (see below). Written policies for initiating isolation should specify the indications for isolation, the person(s) authorized to initiate and discontinue isolation, the isolation practices to follow, the monitoring of isolation, the management of patients who do not adhere to isolation practices and the criteria for discontinuing isolation.

6.    Effectively planning arrangements for discharge. Before a TB patient is discharged from the health care facility, the facility’s staff and public health authorities should collaborate to ensure continuation of therapy. Discharge planning in the health care facility should include, at a minimum, a confirmed outpatient appointment with the provider who will manage the patient until the patient is cured, sufficient medication to take until the outpatient appointment and placement into case management (e.g., directly observed therapy (DOT)) or outreach programmes of the public health department. These plans should be initiated and in place before the patient’s discharge.

7.    Developing, installing, maintaining and evaluating ventilation and other engineering controls to reduce the potential for airborne exposure to M. tuberculosis. Local exhaust ventilation is a preferred source control technique, and it is often the most efficient way to contain airborne contaminants because it captures these contaminants near their source before they can disperse. Therefore, the technique should be used, if feasible, wherever aerosol-generating procedures are performed. Two basic types of local exhaust devices use hoods: the enclosing type, in which the hood either partially or fully encloses the infectious source, and the exterior type, in which the infectious source is near but outside the hood. Fully enclosed hoods, booths or tents are always preferable to exterior types because of their superior ability to prevent contaminants from escaping into the HCW’s breathing zone. General ventilation can be used for several purposes, including diluting and removing contaminated air, controlling airflow patterns within rooms and controlling the direction of airflow throughout a facility. General ventilation maintains air quality by two processes: dilution and removal of airborne contaminants. Uncontaminated supply air mixes with the contaminated room air (i.e., dilution), which is subsequently removed from the room by the exhaust system. These processes reduce the concentration of droplet nuclei in the room air. Recommended general ventilation rates for health care facilities are usually expressed in number of air changes per hour (ACH).

This number is the ratio of the volume of air entering the room per hour to the room volume and is equal to the exhaust airflow (Q, in cubic feet per minute) divided by the room volume (V, in cubic feet) multiplied by 60 (i.e., ACH = Q / V x 60). For the purposes of reducing the concentration of droplet nuclei, TB isolation and treatment rooms in existing health care facilities should have an airflow of greater than 6 ACH. Where feasible, this airflow rate should be increased to at least 12 ACH by adjusting or modifying the ventilation system or by using auxiliary means (e.g., recirculation of air through fixed HEPA filtration systems or portable air cleaners). New construction or renovation of existing health care facilities should be designed so that TB isolation rooms achieve an airflow of at least 12 ACH. The general ventilation system should be designed and balanced so that air flows from less contaminated (i.e., more clean) to more contaminated (less clean) areas. For example, air should flow from corridors into TB isolation rooms to prevent spread of contaminants to other areas. In some special treatment rooms in which operative and invasive procedures are performed, the direction of airflow is from the room to the hallway to provide cleaner air during these procedures. Cough-inducing or aerosol-generating procedures (e.g., bronchoscopy and irrigation of tuberculous abscesses) should not be performed in rooms with this type of airflow on patients who may have infectious TB. HEPA filters may be used in a number of ways to reduce or eliminate infectious droplet nuclei from room air or exhaust. These methods include placement of HEPA filters in exhaust ducts discharging air from booths or enclosures into the surrounding room, in ducts or in ceiling- or wall-mounted units, for recirculation of air within an individual room (fixed recirculation systems), in portable air cleaners, in exhaust ducts to remove droplet nuclei from air being discharged to the outside, either directly or through ventilation equipment, and in ducts discharging air from the TB isolation room into the general ventilation system. In any application, HEPA filters should be installed carefully and maintained meticulously to ensure adequate functioning. For general use areas in which the risk for transmission of M. tuberculosis is relatively high, ultraviolet lamps (UVGI) may be used as an adjunct to ventilation for reducing the concentration of infectious droplet nuclei, although the effectiveness of such units has not been evaluated adequately. Ultraviolet (UV) units can be installed in a room or corridor to irradiate the air in the upper portion of the room, or they can be installed in ducts to irradiate air passing through the ducts.

8.    Developing, implementing, maintaining and evaluating a respiratory protection programme. Personal respiratory protection (i.e., respirators) should be used by persons entering rooms in which patients with known or suspected infectious TB are being isolated, persons present during cough-inducing or aerosol-generating procedures performed on such patients and persons in other settings where administrative and engineering controls are not likely to protect them from inhaling infectious airborne droplet nuclei. These other settings include transporting patients who may have infectious TB in emergency transport vehicles and providing urgent surgical or dental care to patients who may have infectious TB before a determination has been made that the patient is non-infectious.

9.    Educating and training HCWs about TB, effective methods for preventing transmission of M. tuberculosis and the benefits of medical screening programmes. All HCWs, including physicians, should receive education regarding TB that is relevant to persons in their particular occupational group. Ideally, training should be conducted before initial assignment and the need for additional training should be re-evaluated periodically (e.g., once a year). The level and detail of this education will vary according to the HCW’s work responsibilities and the level of risk in the facility (or area of the facility) in which the HCW works. However, the programme may include the following elements:

  • the basic concepts of M. tuberculosis transmission, pathogenesis and diagnosis,
    including information concerning the difference between latent TB infection and active
    TB disease, the signs and symptoms of TB and the possibility of reinfection
  • the potential for occupational exposure to persons who have infectious TB in the
    health care facility, including information concerning the prevalence of TB in the
    community and facility, the ability of the facility to properly isolate patients who have
    active TB, and situations with increased risk for exposure to M. tuberculosis
  • the principles and practices of infection control that reduce the risk for transmission of
    M. tuberculosis, including information concerning the hierarchy of TB infection-control
    measures and the written policies and procedures of the facility. Site-specific control
    measures should be provided to HCWs working in areas that require control
    measures in addition to those of the basic TB infection-control programme.
  • the importance of proper maintenance for engineering controls (e.g., cleaning UVGI lamps and ensuring negative pressure in TB isolation rooms)
  • the purpose of PPD skin testing, the significance of a positive PPD test result and the importance of participating in the skin-test programme
  • the principles of preventive therapy for latent TB infection; these principles include the indications, use, effectiveness and the potential adverse effects of the drugs
  • the HCW’s responsibility to seek prompt medical evaluation if a PPD test conversion
    occurs or if symptoms develop that could be caused by TB. Medical evaluation will
    enable HCWs who have TB to receive appropriate therapy and will help to prevent
    transmission of M. tuberculosis to patients and other HCWs.
  • the principles of drug therapy for active TB
  • the importance of notifying the facility if the HCW is diagnosed with active TB so that contact investigation procedures can be initiated
  • the responsibilities of the facility to maintain the confidentiality of the HCW while
    ensuring that the HCW who has TB receives appropriate therapy and is non-
    infectious before returning to duty
  • the higher risks associated with TB infection in persons who have HIV infection or
    other causes of severely impaired cell-mediated immunity, including (a) the more
    frequent and rapid development of clinical TB after infection with M. tuberculosis, (b)
    the differences in the clinical presentation of disease and (c) the high mortality rate associated with multiple drug resistant-TB in such persons
  • the potential development of cutaneous anergy as immune function (as measured by CD4+ T-lymphocyte counts) declines
  • information regarding the efficacy and safety of BCG vaccination and the principles of PPD screening among BCG recipients
  • the facility’s policy on voluntary work reassignment options for immunocompromised HCWs.

 

10.    Developing and implementing a programme for routine periodic counselling and screening of HCWs for active TB and latent TB infection. A TB counselling, screening and prevention programme for HCWs should be established to protect both HCWs and patients. HCWs who have positive PPD test results, PPD test conversions or symptoms suggestive of TB should be identified, evaluated to rule out a diagnosis of active TB and started on therapy or preventive therapy if indicated. In addition, the results of the HCW PPD screening programme will contribute to evaluation of the effectiveness of current infection-control practices. Because of the increased risk for rapid progression from latent TB infection to active TB in human immunodeficiency virus, HIV-infected or otherwise severely immunocompromised persons, all HCWs should know if they have a medical condition or are receiving a medical treatment that may lead to severely impaired cell-mediated immunity. HCWs who may be at risk for HIV infection should know their HIV status (i.e., they should be encouraged to voluntarily seek counselling and testing for HIV antibody status). Existing guidelines for counselling and testing should be followed routinely. Knowledge of these conditions allows the HCW to seek the appropriate preventive measures and to consider voluntary work reassignments.

11.    ll HCWs should be informed about the need to follow existing recommendations for infection control to minimize the risk for exposure to infectious agents; implementation of these recommendations will greatly reduce the risk for occupational infections among HCWs. All HCWs should also be informed about the potential risks to severely immunocompromised persons associated with caring for patients who have some infectious diseases, including TB. It should be emphasized that limiting exposure to TB patients is the most protective measure that severely immunosuppressed HCWs can take to avoid becoming infected with M. tuberculosis. HCWs who have severely impaired cell-mediated immunity and who may be exposed to M. tuberculosis may consider a change in job-setting to avoid such exposure. HCWs should be advised of the legal option in many jurisdictions that severely immunocompromised HCWs can choose to transfer voluntarily to areas and work activities in which there is the lowest possible risk for exposure to M. tuberculosis. This choice should be a personal decision for HCWs after they have been informed of the risks to their health.

12.    Employers should make reasonable accommodations (e.g., alternative job assignments) for employees who have a health condition that compromises cell-mediated immunity and who work in settings where they may be exposed to M. tuberculosis. HCWs who are known to be immunocompromised should be referred to employee health professionals who can individually counsel the employees regarding their risk for TB. Upon the request of the immunocompromised HCW, employers should offer, but not compel, a work setting in which the HCW would have the lowest possible risk for occupational exposure to M. tuberculosis.

13.    All HCWs should be informed that immunosuppressed HCWs should have appropriate follow-up and screening for infectious diseases, including TB, provided by their medical practitioner. HCWs who are known to be HIV-infected or otherwise severely immunosuppressed should be tested for cutaneous anergy at the time of PPD testing. Consideration should be given to retesting, at least every 6 months, those immunocompromised HCWs who are potentially exposed to M. tuberculosis because of the high risk for rapid progression to active TB if they become infected.

14.    Information provided by HCWs regarding their immune status should be treated confidentially. If the HCW requests voluntary job reassignment, the privacy of the HCW should be maintained. Facilities should have written procedures on confidential handling of such information.

15.    Promptly evaluating possible episodes of M. tuberculosis transmission in health care facilities, including PPD skin-test conversions among HCWs, epidemiologically associated cases among HCWs or patients and contacts of patients or HCWs who have TB and who were not promptly identified and isolated. Epidemiological investigations may be indicated for several situations. These include, but are not limited to, the occurrence of PPD test conversions or active TB in HCWs, the occurrence of possible person-to-person transmission of M. tuberculosis and situations in which patients or HCWs with active TB are not promptly identified and isolated, thus exposing other persons in the facility to M. tuberculosis. The general objectives of the epidemiological investigations in these situations are as follows:

  • to determine the likelihood that transmission of and infection with M. tuberculosis has occurred in the facility
  • to determine the extent to which M. tuberculosis has been transmitted
  • to identify those persons who have been exposed and infected, enabling them to receive appropriate clinical management
  • to identify factors that could have contributed to transmission and infection and to implement appropriate interventions
  • to evaluate the effectiveness of any interventions that are implemented and to ensure that exposure to and transmission of M. tuberculosis have been terminated.

 

16.    Coordinating activities with the local public health department, emphasizing reporting and ensuring adequate   discharge follow-up and the continuation and completion of therapy. As soon as a patient or HCW is known or suspected to have active TB, the patient or HCW should be reported to the public health department so that appropriate follow-up can be arranged and a community contact investigation can be performed. The health department should be notified well before patient discharge to facilitate follow-up and continuation of therapy. A discharge plan coordinated with the patient or HCW, the health department and the inpatient facility should be implemented.

 

Back

Read 7221 times Last modified on Wednesday, 29 June 2011 12:46

" DISCLAIMER: The ILO does not take responsibility for content presented on this web portal that is presented in any language other than English, which is the language used for the initial production and peer-review of original content. Certain statistics have not been updated since the production of the 4th edition of the Encyclopaedia (1998)."

Contents

Health Care Facilities and Services References

Abdo, R and H Chriske. 1990. HAV-Infektionsrisiken im Krankenhaus, Altenheim und Kindertagesstätten. In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 5, edited by F Hofmann and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Acton, W. 1848. On the advantages of caouchoue and gutta-percha in protecting the skin against the contagion of animal poisons. Lancet 12:588.

Ahlin, J. 1992. Interdisciplinary case studies in offices in Sweden. In Corporate Space and Architecture. Vol. 2. Paris: Ministére de l’équipment et du logement.

Akinori, H and O Hiroshi. 1985. Analysis of fatigue and health conditions among hospital nurses. J Science of Labour 61:517-578.

Allmeers, H, B Kirchner, H Huber, Z Chen, JW Walter, and X Baur. 1996. The latency period between exposure and the symptoms in allergy to natural latex: Suggestions for prevention. Dtsh Med Wochenschr 121 (25/26):823-828.

Alter, MJ. 1986. Susceptibility to varicella zoster virus among adults at high risk for exposure. Infec Contr Hosp Epid 7:448-451.

—. 1993. The detection, transmission, and outcome of hepatitis C infection. Infect Agents Dis 2:155-166.

Alter, MJ, HS Margolis, K Krawczynski, FN Judson, A Mares, WJ Alexander, PY Hu, JK Miller, MA Gerber, and RE Sampliner. 1992. The natural history of community-acquired hepatitis C in the United States. New Engl J Med 327:1899-1905.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). 1991. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th edition. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH.

—. 1994. TLVs: Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices for 1994-1995. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH.

American Hospital Association (AHA). 1992. Implementing Safer Needle Practice. Chicago, IL: AHA.

American Institute of Architects. 1984. Determining Hospital Space Requirements. Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects Press.

American Institute of Architects Committee on Architecture for Health. 1987. Guidelines for Construction and Equipment of Hospital and Medical Facilities. Washington, DC: American Institute of Acrchitects Press.

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 1987. Health facilities. In ASHRAE Handbook: Heating, Ventilating and Air-conditioning Systems and Applications. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE.

Anon. 1996. New drugs for HIV infection. Medical Letter of Drugs and Therapeutics 38:37.

Axelsson, G, R Rylander, and I Molin. 1989. Outcome of pregnancy in relation to irregular and inconvenient work schedules. Brit J Ind Med 46:393-398.

Beatty, J SK Ahern, and R Katz. 1977. Sleep deprivation and the vigilance of anesthesiologists during simulated surgery. In Vigilance, edited by RR Mackie. New York: Plenum Press.

Beck-Friis, B, P Strang, and PO Sjöden. 1991. Work stress and job satisfaction in hospital-based home care. Journal of Palliative Care 7(3):15-21.

Benenson, AS (ed.). 1990. Control of Communicable Disease in Man, 15th edition. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

Bertold, H, F Hofmann, M Michaelis, D Neumann-Haefelin, G Steinert, and J Wölfle. 1994. Hepatitis C—Risiko für Beschäftigte im Gesundheitsdienst? In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 7, edited by F Hofmann, G Reschauer, and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Bertram, DA. 1988. Characteristics of shifts and second-year resident performance in an emergency department. NY State J Med 88:10-14.

Berufsgenossenschaft für Gesundheitsdienst und Wohlfahrtspflege (BGW). 1994. Geschäftsbericht.

Bissel, L and R Jones. 1975. Disabled doctors ignored by peers. Presented at the American Medical Association Conference on the Imparied Physician, 11 April, San Francisco, CA.

Bitker, TE. 1976. Reaching out to the depressed physician. JAMA 236(15):1713-1716.

Blanchard, M, MM Cantel, M Faivre, J Girot, JP Ramette, D Thely, and M Estryn-Béhar. 1992. Incidence des rythmes biologiques sur le travail de nuit. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital, edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. Toulouse: Edition Octares.

Blanpain, C and M Estryn-Béhar. 1990. Measures d’ambiance physique dans dix services hospitaliers. Performances 45:18-33.

Blaycock, B. 1995. Latex allergies: Overview, prevention and implications for nursing care. Ostomy Wound Manage 41(5):10-12,14-15.

Blazer, MJ, FJ Hickman, JJ Farmer, and DJ Brenner. 1980. Salmonella typhi: The laboratory as a reservoir of infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases 142:934-938.

Blow, RJ and MIV Jayson. 1988. Back pain. In Fitness for Work: The Medical Approach, edited by FC Edwards, RL McCallum, and PJ Taylor. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Boehm, G and E Bollinger. 1990. Significance of environmental factors on the tolerated enteral feeding volumes for patients in neonatal intensive care units. Kinderarzliche Praxis 58(6):275-279.

Bongers, P, RD Winter, MAJ Kompier, and VV Hildebrandt. 1992. Psychosocial Factors at Work and Musculoskeletal Diseases. Review of the literature. Leiden, Netherlands: TNO.

Bouhnik, C, M Estryn-Béhar, B Kapitaniak, M Rocher, and P Pereau. 1989. Le roulage dans les établissements de soins. Document pour le médecin du travail. INRS 39:243-252.

Boulard, R. 1993. Les indices de santé mentale du personnel infirmier: l’impact de la charge de travail, de l’autonomie et du soutien social. In La psychologie du travail à l’aube du XXI° siècle. Actes du 7° Congrès de psychologie du travail de langue française. Issy-les-Moulineaux: Editions EAP.

Breakwell, GM. 1989. Facing Physical Violence. London: British Psychological Society.

Bruce, DL and MJ Bach. 1976. Effects of Trace Concentrations of Anesthetic Gases on Behavioral Performance of Operating Room Personnel. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 76-169. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

Bruce, DL, KA Eide, HW Linde, and JE Eckenhoff. 1968. Causes of death among anesthesiologists: A 20 years survey. Anesthesiology 29:565-569.

Bruce, DL, KA Eide, NJ Smith, F Seltzer, and MH Dykes. 1974. A prospective survey of anesthesiologists’ mortality, 1967-1974. Anesthesiology 41:71-74.

Burhill, D, DA Enarson, EA Allen, and S Grzybowski. 1985. Tuberculosis in female nurses in British Columbia. Can Med Assoc J 132:137.

Burke, FJ, MA Wilson, and JF McCord. 1995. Allergy to latex gloves in clinical practice: Case reports. Quintessence Int 26(12):859-863.

Buring, JE, CH Hennekens, SL Mayrent, B Rosner, ER Greenberg, and T Colton. 1985. Health experiences of operating room personnel. Anesthesiology 62: 325-330.

Burton, R. 1990. St. Mary’s Hospital, Isle of Wight: A suitable background for caring. Brit Med J 301:1423-1425.

Büssing, A. 1993. Stress and burnout in nursing: Studies in different work structures and work schedules. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Cabal, C, D Faucon, H Delbart, F Cabal, and G Malot. 1986. Construction d’une blanchisserie industrielle aux CHU de Saint-Etienne. Arch Mal Prof 48(5):393-394.

Callan, JR, RT Kelly, ML Quinn, JW Gwynne, RA Moore, FA Muckler, J Kasumovic, WM Saunders, RP Lepage, E Chin, I Schoenfeld, and DI Serig. 1995. Human Factors Evaluation of Remote Afterloading Brachytherapy. NUREG/CR-6125. Vol. 1. Washington, DC: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Cammock, R. 1981. Primary Health Care Buildings: Briefing and Design Guide for Architects and Their Clients. London: Architectural Press.

Cardo, D, P Srivastava, C Ciesielski, R Marcus, P McKibben, D Culver, and D Bell. 1995. Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood (abstract). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 suppl:20.

Carillo, T, C Blanco, J Quiralte, R Castillo, M Cuevas, and F Rodriguez de Castro. 1995. Prevalence of latex allergy among greenhouse workers. J Allergy Clin Immunol 96(5/1):699-701.

Catananti, C and A Cambieri. 1990. Igiene e Tecnica Ospedaliera (Hospital Hygiene and Organization). Roma: II Pensiero Scientifico Editore.

Catananti, C, G Damiani, G Capelli, and G Manara. 1993. Building design and selection of materials and furnishings in the hospital: A review of international guidelines. In Indoor Air ’93, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate 2:641-646.

Catananti, C, G Capelli, G Damiani, M Volpe, and GC Vanini. 1994. Multiple criteria evaluation in planning selection of materials for health care facilities. Preliminary identification of criteria and variables. In Healthy Buildings ’94, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference 1:103-108.

Cats-Baril, WL and JW Frymoyer. 1991. The economics of spinal disorders. In The Adult Spine, edited by JW Frymoyer. New York: Raven Press.

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 1982. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): Precautions for clinical laboratory staffs. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 31:577-580.

—. 1983. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): Precautions for health-care workers and allied professionals. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 32:450-451.

—. 1987a. Human immunodeficiency virus infection in health-care workers exposed to blood of infected patients. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 36:285-289.

—. 1987b. Recommendations for prevention of HIV transmission in health-care settings. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 36 suppl 2:3S-18S.

—. 1988a. Universal precautions for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and other bloodborne pathogens in health-care settings. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 37:377-382,387-388.

—. 1988b. Guidelines for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to health-care and public-safety workers. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 37 suppl 6:1-37.

—. 1989. Guidelines for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to health-care and public-safety workers. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 38 suppl 6.

—. 1990. Public Health Service statement on management of occupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus, including considerations regarding post-exposure use. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 39 (No. RR-1).

—. 1991a. Hepatitis B virus: A comprehensive strategy for eliminating transmission in the United States through universal childhood vaccination: Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP). Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 40 (No. RR-13).

—. 1991b. Recommendations for preventing transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus to patients during exposure-prone invasive procedures. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 40 (No. RR-8).

—. 1993a. Recommended infection-control practices in dentistry. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 42 (No. RR-8):1-12.

—. 1993b. Biosafety in Microbial and Biomedical Laboratories, 3rd edition. DHHS (CDC) Publication No. 93-8395. Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994a. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol. 5(4). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994b. HIV/AIDS Prevention Newsletter. Vol. 5(4). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994c. Human immunodeficiency virus in household settings—United States. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 43:347-356.

—. 1994d. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol. 6(1). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1994e. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care facilities. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 43 (No. RR-13):5-50.

—. 1995. Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health-care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood—France, United Kingdom, and United States. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 44:929-933.

—. 1996a. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Vol 8(2). Atlanta, GA: CDC.

—. 1996b. Update: Provisional Public Health Service recommendations for chemoprophylaxis after occupational exposure to HIV. Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 45:468-472.

Charney, W (ed.). 1994. Essentials of Modern Hospital Safety. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.

Chou, T, D Weil, and P Arnmow. 1986. Prevalence of measles antibodies in hospital personnel. Infec Contr Hosp Epid 7:309-311.

Chriske, H and A Rossa. 1991. Hepatitis-C-Infektionsgefährdung des medizinischen Personals. In Arbeitsmedizin im Gesundheitsdienst, Band 5, edited by F Hofmann and U Stössel. Stuttgart: Gentner Verlag.

Clark, DC, E Salazar-Gruesco, P Grabler, J Fawcett. 1984. Predictors of depression during the first 6 months of internship. Am J Psychiatry 141:1095-1098.

Clemens, R, F Hofmann, H Berthold, and G Steinert. 1992. Prävalenz von Hepatitis, A, B und C bei Bewohern einer Einrichtung für geistig Behinderte. Sozialpädiatrie 14:357-364.

Cohen, EN. 1980. Anasthetic Exposure in the Workplace. Littleton, MA: PSG Publishing Co.

Cohen, EN, JW Bellville, and BW Brown, Jr. 1971. Anesthesia, pregnancy and miscarriage: A study of operating room nurses and anesthetists. Anesthesiology 35:343-347.

—. 1974. Occupational disease among operating room personnel: A national study. Anesthesiology 41:321-340.

—. 1975. A survey of anethestic health hazards among dentists. J Am Dent Assoc 90:1291-1296.

Commission of the European Communities. 1990. Recommendation of the Commission February 21, 1990, about Protection of People against Exposure to Radon in Indoor Environments. 90/143/Euratom (Italian Translation).

Cooper, JB. 1984. Toward prevention of anesthesic mishaps. International Anesthesiology Clinics 22:167-183.

Cooper, JB, RS Newbower, and RJ Kitz. 1984. An analysis of major errors and equipment failures in anesthesia management: Considerations for prevention and detection. Anesthesiology 60(1):34-42.

Costa, G, R Trinco, and G Schallenberg. 1992. Problems of thermal comfort in an operating room equipped with laminar air flow system In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar M, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Cristofari, M-F, M Estryn-Béhar, M Kaminski, and E Peigné. 1989. Le travail des femmes à l’hôpital. Informations Hospitalières 22/23:48-62.

Council of the European Communities. 1988. Directive December 21, 1988, to Draw Near the Laws of Member Countries about Building Products. 89/106/EEC (Italian translation).

de Chambost, M. 1994. Alarmes sonnantes, soignantes trébuchantes. Objectif soins 26:63-68.

de Keyser, V and AS Nyssen. 1993. Les erreurs humaines en anesthésies. Le Travail humain 56(2/3):243-266.

Decree of the President of Ministers Council. 1986. Directive to the Regions about Private Health Care Facilities Requirements. 27 June.

Dehlin, O, S Berg, GBS Andersson, and G Grimby. 1981. Effect of physical training and ergonomic counselling on the psychosocial perception of work and on the subjective assesment of low-back insuffuciency. Scand J Rehab 13:1-9.

Delaporte, MF, M Estryn-Béhar, G Brucker, E Peigne, and A Pelletier. 1990. Pathologie dermatologique et exercice professionnel en milieu hospitalier. Arch Mal Prof 51(2):83-88.

Denisco, RA, JN Drummond, and JS Gravenstein. 1987. The effect of fatigue on the performance of a simulated anesthetic monitoring task. J Clin Monit 3:22-24.

Devienne, A, D Léger, M Paillard, A Dômont. 1995. Troubles du sommeil et de la vigilance chez des généralistes de garde en région parisienne. Arch Mal Prof 56(5):407-409.

Donovan, R, PA Kurzman, and C Rotman. 1993. Improving the lives of home care workers: A partnership of social work and labor. Soc Work 38(5):579-585..

Edling, C. 1980. Anesthetic gases as an occupational hazard. A review. Scand J Work Environ Health 6:85-93.

Ehrengut, W and T Klett. 1981. Rötelnimmunstatus von Schwesternschülerinnen in Hamberger Krankenhäusern im Jahre 1979. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkdunde 129:464-466.

Elias, J, D Wylie, A Yassi, and N Tran. 1993. Eliminating worker exposure to ethylene oxide from hospital sterilizers: An evaluation of cost and effectiveness of an isolation system. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 8(8):687-692.

Engels, J, TH Senden, and K Hertog. 1993. Working postures of nurses in nursing homes. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Englade J, E Badet and G Becque. 1994. Vigilance et qualité de sommeil des soignants de nuit. Revue de l’infirmière 17:37-48.

Ernst, E and V Fialka. 1994. Idiopathic low back pain: Present impact, future directions. European Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 4:69-72.

Escribà Agüir, V. 1992. Nurses’ attitudes towards shiftwork and quality of life, Scand J Soc Med 20(2):115-118.

Escribà Agüir V, S Pérez, F Bolumar, and F Lert. 1992. Retentissement des horaires de travail sur le sommeil des infirmiers. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Estryn-Béhar, M. 1990. Les groupes de parole: Une stratégie d’amélioration des relations avec les malades. Le concours médical 112(8):713-717.

—. 1991. Guide des risques professionnels du personnel des services de soins. Paris: Editions Lamarre.

Estryn-Béhar, M and N Bonnet. 1992. Le travail de nuit à l’hôpital. Quelques constats à mieux prendre en compte. Arch Mal Prof 54(8):709-719.

Estryn-Béhar, M and F Fonchain. 1986. Les troubles du sommeil du personnel hospitalier effectuant un travail de nuit en continu. Arch Mal Prof 47(3):167-172;47(4):241.

Estryn-Béhar, M and JP Fouillot. 1990a. Etude de la charge physique du personnel soignant, Documents pour le médecin du travail. INRS: 27-33.

—. 1990b. Etude de la charge mentale et approche de la charge psychique du personnel soignant. Analyse du travail des infirmières et aides-soignantes dans 10 services de soins. Documents pour le médecin du travail INRS 42:131-144.

Estryn-Béhar, M and C Hakim-Serfaty. 1990. Organisation de l’espace hospitalier. Techn hosp 542:55-63.

Estryn-Béhar, M and G Milanini. 1992. Concevoir les espaces de travail en services de soins. Technique Hospitalière 557:23-27.

Estryn-Béhar, M and H Poinsignon. 1989. Travailler à l’hopital. Paris: Berger Levrault.

Estryn-Béhar, M, C Gadbois, and E Vaichere. 1978. Effets du travail de nuit en équipes fixes sur une population féminine. Résultats d’une enquête dans le secteur hospitalier. Arch Mal Prof 39(9):531-535.

Estryn-Béhar, M, C Gadbois, E Peigné, A Masson, and V Le Gall. 1989b. Impact of nightshifts on male and female hospital staff, in Shiftwork: Health and Performance, edited by G Costa, G Cesana, K Kogi, and A Wedderburn. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Night and Shift Work. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, and E Peigné. 1990. Strenuous working conditions and musculoskeletal disorders among female hospital workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 62:47-57.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, M Franc, S Fermand, and F Gerstle F. 1978. Grossesse er conditions de travail en milieu hospitalier. Revue franç gynec 73(10) 625-631.

Estryn-Béhar, M, M Kaminski, E Peigné, N Bonnet, E Vaichère, C Gozlan, S Azoulay, and M Giorgi. 1990. Stress at work and mental health status. Br J Ind Med 47:20-28.

Estryn-Béhar, M, B Kapitaniak, MC Paoli, E Peigné, and A Masson. 1992. Aptitude for physical exercise in a population of female hospital workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 64:131-139.

Estryn Béhar, M, G Milanini, T Bitot, M Baudet, and MC Rostaing. 1994. La sectorisation des soins: Une organisation, un espace. Gestion hospitalière 338:552-569.

Estryn-Béhar, M, G Milanini, MM Cantel, P Poirier, P Abriou, and the ICU’s study group. 1995a. Interest of participative ergonomic methodology to improve an intensive care unit. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, 2nd edition, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

—. 1995b. Participative ergonomic methodology for the new fitting out of a cardiologic intensive care unit. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, 2nd edition, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Estryn-Béhar, M, E Peigné, A Masson, C Girier-Desportes, JJ Guay, D Saurel, JC Pichenot, and J Cavaré. 1989a. Les femmes travaillant à l’hôpital aux différents horaires, qui sont-elles? Que décrivent-elles comme conditions de travail? Que souhaitent-elles? Arch Mal Prof 50(6):622-628.

Falk, SA and NF Woods. 1973. Hospital noise-levels and potential health hazards, New England J Med 289:774-781.

Fanger, PO. 1973. Assessment of man’s thermal comfort in practice. Br J Ind Med 30:313-324.

—. 1992. Sensory characterization of air quality and pollution sources. In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality—State of the Art in SBS, edited by H Knoppel and P Wolkoff. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Favrot-Laurens. 1992. Advanced technologies and work organization of hospital teams. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

—. 1992. Sensory characterization of air quality and pollution sources. In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality—State of the Art in Sick Building Syndrome, edited by H Koppel and P Wolkoff. Brussels and Luxembourg: EEC.

Ferstandig, LL. 1978. Trace concentrations of anesthetic gases: A critical review of their disease potential. Anesth Analg 57:328-345.

Finley, GA and AJ Cohen. 1991. Percieved urgency and the anaesthetist: Responses to common operating room monitor alarms. Can J Anaesth 38(8):958-964

Ford, CV and DK Wentz. 1984. The internship year: A study of sleep, mood states, and psychophysiologic parameters. South Med J 77:1435-1442.

Friedman, RC, DS Kornfeld, and TJ Bigger. 1971. Psychological problems associated with sleep deprivation in interns. Journal of Medical Education 48:436-441.

Friele, RD and JJ Knibbe. 1993. Monitoring the barriers with the use of patient lifts in home care as perceived by nursing personnel. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. LandsbergLech: Ecomed Verlag.

Gadbois, CH. 1981. Aides-soignantes et infirmières de nuit. In Conditions de travail et vie quotidienne. Montrougs: Agence Nationale pour l’Amélioration des Conditions de Travail.

Gadbois, C, P Bourgeois, MM Goeh-Akue-Gad, J Guillaume, and MA Urbain. 1992. Contraintes temporelles et structure de l’espace dans le processus de travail des équipes de soins. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Games, WP, and W Tatton-Braen. 1987. Hospitals Design and Development. London: Architectural Press.

Gardner, ER and RC Hall. 1981. The professional stress syndrome. Psychosomatics 22:672-680.

Gaube, J, H Feucht, R Laufs, D Polywka, E Fingscheidt, and HE Müller. 1993. Hepatitis A, B und C als desmoterische Infecktionen. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 55:246-249.

Gerberding, JL. N.d. Open trial of Zidovudine Postexposure-chemoprophylaxis in Health Care Workers with Occupational Exposures to Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Skript SFGH.

—. 1995. Management of occupational exposures to blood-borne viruses. New Engl J Med 332:444-451.

Ginesta, J. 1989. Gases anestésicos. In Riesgos del Trabajo del Personal Sanitario, edited by JJ Gestal. Madrid: Editorial Interamericana McGraw-Hill.

Gold, DR, S Rogacz, N Bock, TD Tosteson, TM Baum, FE Speizer, and CA Czeiler. 1992. Rotating shift work, sleep and accidents related to sleepiness in hospital nurses. Am J Public Health 82(7):1011-1014.

Goldman, LI, MT McDonough, and GP Rosemond. 1972. Stresses affecting surgical performance and learning: Correlation of heart rate, electrocardiogram, and operation simultaneously recorded on videotapes. J Surg Res 12:83-86.

Graham, C, C Hawkins, and W Blau. 1983. Innovative social work practice in health care: Stress management. In Social Work in a Turbulent World, edited by M Dinerman. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Green, A. 1992. How nurses can ensure the sounds patients hear have a positive rather than negative effect upon recovery and quality of life. Intensive & Critical Care Nursing Journal 8(4):245-248.

Griffin, WV. 1995. Social worker and agency safety. In Encyclopaedia of Social Work, 19th edition. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Grob, PJ. 1987. Cluster of hepatitis B transmission by a physician. Lancet 339:1218-1220.

Guardino, X and MG Rosell. 1985. Exposicion laboral a gases anestésicos. In Notas Técnicas de Prevención. No. 141. Barcelona: INSHT.

—. 1992. Exposure at work to anesthetic gases. A controlled risk? Janus 12:8-10.

—. 1995. Exposure monitoring to anesthetic gases. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagburg, F Hoffmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Solna: National Institute of Occupational Health.

Hagberg, M, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander (eds.). 1993. Occupational Health for Health Care Workers. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hagberg, M, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander (eds.). 1995. Occupational Health for Health Care Workers. Singapore: International Commission on Occupational Health.

Haigh, R. 1992. The application of ergonomics to the design of workplace in health care buildings in the U.K. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Halm, MA and MA Alpen, 1993. The impact of technology on patient and families. Nursing Clinics of North America 28(2):443-457.

Harber, P, L Pena, and P Hsu. 1994. Personal history, training, and worksite as predictors of back pain of nurses. Am J Ind Med 25:519-526.

Hasselhorn, HM. 1994. Antiretrovirale prophylaxe nach kontakt mit HIV-jontaminierten. In Flüssigkeiten in Infektiologie, edited by F Hofmann. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hasselhorn, HM and E Seidler.1993. Terminal care in Sweden—New aspects of the professional care of dying. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel U, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Heptonstall, J, K Porter, and N Gill. 1993. Occupational Transmission of HIV: Summary of Published Reports. London: Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre AIDS Centre.

Hesse, A, Lacher A, HU Koch, J Kublosch, V Ghane, and KF Peters. 1996. Update on the latex allergy topic. Hauzarzt 47(11):817-824.

Ho, DD, T Moudgil, and M Alam. 1989. Quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the blood of infected persons. New Engl J Med 321:1621-1625.

Hodge, B and JF Thompson. 1990. Noise pollution in the operating theatre. Lancet 335:891-894.

Hofmann, F and H Berthold. 1989. Zur Hepatitis-B-Gefährdung des Krankenhauspersonals-Möglichkeiten der prae-und postexpositionellen Prophylaxe. Medizinische Welt 40:1294-1301.

Hofmann, F and U Stössel. 1995. Environmental health in the health care professions: Biological, physical, psychic, and social health hazards. Reviews on Environmental Health 11:41-55.

Hofmann, F, H Berthold, and G Wehrle. 1992. Immunity to hepatitis A in hospital personnel. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 11(12):1195.

Hofmann, F, U Stössel, and J Klima. 1994. Low back pain in nurses (I). European Journal of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation 4:94-99.

Hofmann, F, B Sydow, and M Michaelis. 1994a. Mumps—berufliche Gefährdung und Aspekte der epidemiologischen Entwicklung. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 56:453-455.

—. 1994b. Zur epidemiologischen Bedeutung der Varizellen. Gessundheitwesen und Desinfextion 56:599-601.

Hofmann, F, G Wehrle, K Berthold, and D Köster. 1992. Hepatitis A as an occupational hazard. Vaccine 10 suppl 1:82-84.

Hofmann, F, U Stössel, M Michaelis, and A Siegel. 1993. Tuberculosis—Occupational risk for health care workers? In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hofmann, F, M Michaelis, A Siegel, and U Stössel. 1994. Wirbelsäulenerkrankungen im Pflegeberuf. Medizinische Grundlagen und Prävention. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Hofmann, F, M Michaelis, M Nübling, and FW Tiller. 1995. European Hepatitis—A Study. Publikation in Vorereitung.

Hofmann, H and C Kunz. 1990. Low risk of health care workers for infection with hepatitis-C virus. Infection 18:286-288.

Holbrook, TL, K Grazier, JL Kelsey, and RN Stauffer. 1984. The Frequency of Occurrence, Impact, and Cost of Selected Musculoskeletal Conditions in the United States. Park Ridge, Il: American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons.

Hollinger, FB. 1990. Hepatitis B virus. In Virology, edited by BN Fiedles and DM Knipe. New York: Raven Press.

Hopps, J and P Collins. 1995. Social work profession overview. In Encyclopedia of Social Work, 19th edition. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Hubacova, L, I Borsky, and F Strelka. 1992. Work physiology problems of nurses working in inpatients departments. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Hunt, LW, AF Fransway, CE Reed, LK Miller, RT Jones, MC Swanson, and JW Yunginger. 1995. An epidemic of occupational allergy to latex involving health care workers. J Occup Environ Med 37(10):1204-1209.

Jacobson, SF and HK MacGrath. 1983. Nurses under Stress. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Jacques, CHM, MS Lynch and JS Samkoff. 1990. The effects of sleep loss on cognitive performance of resident physicians. J Fam Pract 30:223-229.

Jagger, J, EH Hunt, J Brand-Elnagger, and RD Pearson. 1988. Rates of needle-stick injury caused by various devices in a university hospital. New Engl J Med 319:284-288.

Johnson, JA, RM Buchan, and J S Reif. 1987. Effect of waste anesthetic gas and vapor exposure on reproductive outcome in veterinary personnel. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 48(1):62-66.

Jonasson, G, JO Holm, and J Leegard. Rubber allergy: An increasing health problem? Tuidsskr Nor Laegeforen 113(11):1366-1367.

Kandolin, I. 1993. Burnout of female and male nurses in shiftwork. Ergonomics 36(1/3):141-147.

Kaplan, RM and RA Deyo. 1988. Back pain in health care workers. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus.

Katz, R. 1983. Causes of death among nurses. Occup Med 45:760-762.

Kempe, P, M Sauter and I Lindner. 1992. Special characteristics of nurses for the aged who made use of a training program aimed to reduce burn-out symptoms and first results on treatment outcome. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Kerr, JH. 1985. Warning devices. Br J Anaesth 57:696-708.

Kestin, IG, RB Miller, and CJ Lockhart. 1988. Auditory alarms during anesthesia monitoring. Anesthesiology 69(1):106-109.

Kinloch-de-los, S, BJ Hirschel, B Hoen, DA Cooper, B Tindall, A Carr, H Sauret, N Clumeck, A Lazzarin, and E Mathiesen. 1995. A controlled trial of Zidovudine in primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. New Engl J Med 333:408-413.

Kivimäki, M and K Lindström. 1995. The crucial role of the head nurse in a hospital ward. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Klaber Moffet, JA, SM Chase, I Portek, and JR Ennis. 1986. A controlled study to evaluate the efectiveness of the back pain school in the relief of chronic low back pain. Spine 11:120-122.

Kleczkowski, BM, C Montoya-Aguilar, and NO Nilsson. 1985. Approaches to Planning and Design of Health Care Facilities in Developing Areas. Vol. 5. Geneva: WHO.

Klein, BR and AJ Platt. 1989. Health Care Facility Planning and Construction. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Kelin, R, K Freemann, P Taylor, C Stevens. 1991. Occupational risk for hepatits C virus infection among New York City dentists. Lancet 338:1539-1542.

Kraus, H. 1970. Clinical Treatment of Back and Neck Pain. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kujala, VM and KE Reilula. 1995. Glove-induced dermal and respiratory symptoms among health care workers in one Finnish hospital. Am J Ind Med 28(1):89-98.

Kurumatani, N, S Koda, S Nakagiri, K Sakai, Y Saito, H Aoyama, M Dejima, and T Moriyama. 1994. The effects of frequently rotating shiftwork on sleep and the family life of hospital nurses. Ergonomics 37:995-1007.

Lagerlöf, E and E Broberg. 1989. Occupational injuries and diseases. In Occupational Hazards in the Health Professions, edited by DK Brune and C Edling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Lahaye, D, P Jacques, G Moens, and B Viaene. 1993. The registration of medical data obtained by preventive medical examinations on health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, F, U Stössel and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Lampher, BP, CC Linneman, CG Cannon, MM DeRonde, L Pendy, and LM Kerley. 1994. Hepatitis C virus infection in health care workers: Risk of exposure and infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 15:745-750.

Landau, C, S Hall, SA Wartman, and MB Macko. 1986. Stress in social and family relationships during medical residency. Journal of Medical Education 61:654-660.

Landau, K. 1992. Psycho-physical strain and the burn-out phenomen amongst health care professionals. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Landewe, MBM and HT Schröer. 1993. Development of a new, integrated patient transfer training program—Primary prevention of low back pain. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, editeb by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Lange, M. 1931. Die Muskelhärten (Myogelosen). Munich: JF Lehman Verlag.

Lange, W and KN Masihi. 1986. Durchseuchung mit Hepatitis-A- und B-Virus bei medizinischem Personal. Bundesgesundheitsol 29;183-87.

Lee, KA. 1992. Self-reported sleep disturbances in employed women. Sleep15(6):493-498.

Lempereur, JJ. 1992. Prévention des dorso-lombalgies. Influence du vêtement de travail sur le comportement gestuel. Spécifications ergonomiques. Cah Kinésither 156,:4.

Leppanen, RA and MA Olkinuora. 1987. Psychological stress experienced by health care personnel. Scand J Work Environ Health 13:1-8.

Lert, F, MJ Marne, and A Gueguen. 1993. Evolution des conditions de travail des infirmières des hôpitaux publics de 1980 à 1990. Revue de l’Epidémiologie et de santé publique 41:16-29.

Leslie, PJ, JA Williams, C McKenna, G Smith and RC Heading. 1990. Hours, volume, and type of work of preregistration house officers. Brit Med J 300:1038-1041.

Lettau, LA, HJ Alfred, RH Glew, HA Fields, MJ Alter, R Meyer, SC Hadler, and JE Maynard. 1986. Nosocomial transmission of delta hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 104:631-635.

Levin, H. 1992. Healthy buildings—Where do we stand, where do we go? In Chemical, Microbiological, Health and Comfort Aspects of Indoor Air Quality: State of the Art in Sick Building Syndrome, edited by H Knoppel and P Wolkoff. Brussels and Luxembourg: EEC.

Lewittes, LR and VW Marshall. 1989. Fatigue and concerns about quality of care among Ontario interns and residents. Can Med Assoc J 140:21-24.

Lewy, R. 1990. Employees at Risk: Protection and Health of Health Care Workers. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Lindström, A and M Zachrisson. 1973. Ryggbesvär och arbetssoförmaga Ryyggskolan. Ett Försok till mer rationeli fysikalist terapi. Socialmet T 7:419-422.

Lippert. 1971. Travel in nursing units. Human Factors 13(3):269-282.

Ljungberg, AS, A Kilbom, and MH Goran. 1989. Occupational lifting by nursing aides and warehouse workers. Ergonomics 32:59-78.

Llewelyn-Davies, R and J Wecks. 1979. In-patient areas. In Approaches to Planning and Design of Health Care Facilities in Developing Areas, edited by BM Kleczkowski and R Piboleau. Geneva: WHO.

Loeb, RG, BR Jones, KH Behrman, and RJ Leonard. 1990. Anesthetists cannot identify audible alarms. Anesthesiology 73(3A):538.

Lotas, MJ. 1992. Effects of light and sound in the neonatal intensive care unit environment on the low-birth-weight infant. NAACOGS Clinical Issues in Perinatal & Womens Health Nursing 3(1):34-44.

Lurie, HE, B Rank, C Parenti, T Wooley, and W Snoke. 1989. How do house officers spend their nights? A time study of internal medicine house staff on call. New Engl J Med 320:1673-1677.

Luttman, A, M Jäger, J Sökeland, and W Laurig. 1996. Electromyographical study on surgeons in urology II. Determination of muscular fatigue. Ergonomics 39(2):298-313.

Makino, S. 1995. Health problems in health care workers in Japan. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsbeg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Malchaire, JB. 1992. Analysis of the work load of nurses. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Manuaba, A. 1992. Social-cultural approach is a must in designing hospital in developing countries, Indonesia as a case study. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Maruna, H. 1990. Zur Hepatitis-B-Durchseuchung in den Berufen des Gesundheits und Fürsorgewesens der Republik Österreichs, Arbeitsmed. Präventivmed. Sozialmed 25:71-75.

Matsuda, A. 1992. Ergonomics approach to nursing care in Japan. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

McCall, T. 1988. The impact of long working hours on resident physicians. New Engl J Med 318(12):775-778.

McCloy, E. 1994. Hepatitis and the EEC Directive. Presented at the 2nd International Conference on Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, Stockholm.

McCormick, RD, MG Meuch, IG Irunk, and DG Maki. 1991. Epidemiology for hospital sharp injuries: A 14-year prospective study in the pre-AIDS and AIDS era. Am J Med 3B:3015-3075.

McCue, JD. 1982. The effects of stresses on physicians and their medical practice. New Engl J Med 306:458-463.

McIntyre, JWR. 1985. Ergonomics: Anaesthetists’ use of auditory alarms in the operating room. Int J Clin Monit Comput 2:47-55

McKinney, PW, MM Horowitz, and RJ Baxtiola. 1989. Susceptibility of hospital-based health care personnel to varicella zoster virus infection. Am J Infect Control 18:26-30.

Melleby, A. 1988. Exercise program for a healthy back. In Diagnosis and Treatment of Muscle Pain. Chicago, IL: Quintessence Books.

Meyer,TJ, SE Eveloff, MS Bauer, WA Schwartz, NS Hill, and PR Millman. 1994. Adverse environmental conditions in the respiratory and medical intensive care unit settings. Chest 105:1211-1216.

Miller, E, J Vurdien, and P Farrington. 1993. Shift age in chickenpox. Lancet 1:341.

Miller, JM. 1982. William Stewart Halsted and the use of the surgical rubber glove. Surgery 92:541-543.

Mitsui, T, K Iwano, K Maskuko, C Yanazaki, H Okamoto, F Tsuda, T Tanaka, and S Mishiros. 1992. Hepatitis C virus infection in medical personnel after needlestick accidents. Hepatology 16:1109-1114.

Modig, B. 1992. Hospital ergonomics in a biopsychosocial perspective. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Momtahan, K, R Hétu, and B Tansley. 1993. Audibility and identification of auditory alarms in the operating room and intensive care unit. Ergonomics 36(10):1159-1176.

Momtahan, KL and BW Tansley. 1989. An ergonomic analysis of the auditory alarm signals in the operating room and recovery room. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Acoustical Association, 18 October, Halifax, NS.

Montoliu, MA, V Gonzalez, B Rodriguez, JF Quintana, and L Palenciano.1992. Conditions de travail dans la blanchisserie centrale des grands hôpitaux de Madrid. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Moore, RM, YM Davis, and RG Kaczmarek. 1993. An overview of occupational hazards among veterinarians, with particular reference to pregnant women. Am J Ind Hyg Assoc 54(3):113-120.

Morel, O. 1994. Les agents des services hospitaliers. Vécu et santé au travail. Arch mal prof 54(7):499-508.

Nachemson, AL and GBJ Anderson. 1982. Classification of low back pain. Scand J Work Environ Health 8:134-136.

National Health Service (NHS). 1991a. Design Guide. The Design of Community Hospitals. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

—. 1991b. Health Building Note 46: General Medical Practice Premises for the Provision of Primary Health Care Service. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1975. Development and Evaluation of Methods for the Elimination of Waste Anesthetic Gases and Vapors in Hospitals. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 75-137. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1997a. Control of Occupational Exposure to N2O in the Dentral Operatory. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-171. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1977b. Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Waste Anesthetic Gases and Vapors. DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-1409. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1988. Guidelines for Protecting the Safety and Health of Health Care Workers. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 88-119. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

—. 1994. NIOSH Alert: Request for Assistance in Controlling Exposures to Nitrous Oxide during Anesthetic Administration. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-100. Cincinnati, OH: NIOSH.

Niu, MT, DS Stein, and SM Schnittmann. 1993. Primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: Review of pathogenesis and early treatment interventions in human and animal retrovirus infections. J Infect Dis 168:1490-1501.

Noweir, MH and MS al-Jiffry. 1991. Study of noise pollution in Jeddah hospitals. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 66 (3/4):291-303.

Nyman, I and A Knutsson. 1995. Psychosocial wellbeing and sleep quality in hospital night and day workers. In Occuaptional Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Objectif Prévention No spécial. 1994. Le lève personne sur rail au plafond: Outil de travail indispensable. Objectif Prévention 17(2):13-39.

O’Carroll, TM. 1986. Survey of alarms in an intensive therapy unit. Anaesthesia 41:742-744.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 1991. Occupational Exposure to Bloodborne Pathogens: Final Rule. 29 CFR Part 1910.1030. Washington, DC: OSHA.

Oëler, JM. 1993. Developmental care of low birth weight infants. Nursing Clinics of North America 28(2):289-301.

Öhling, P and B Estlund. 1995. Working technique for health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander G. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Ollagnier, E and Lamarche MJ. 1993. Une intervention ergonomique dans un hôpital suisse: Impact sur la santé de l’organisation du personnel et des patients. In Ergonomie et santé, edited by D Ramaciotti and A Bousquet. Actes du XXVIIIe congrès de la SELF. Geneva: SELF.

Ott, C, M Estryn-Béhar, C Blanpain, A Astier, and G Hazebroucq. 1991. Conditionnement du médicament et erreurs de médication. J Pharm Clin 10:61-66.

Patkin, M. 1992. Hospital architecture: An ergonomic debacle. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Payer, L. 1988. Medicine and Culture: The Variety of Treatment in the United States, England, West Germany and France. New York: H. Holt.

Payne, R and J Firth-Cozens (eds.). 1987. Stress in Health Professions. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

—. 1995. Determination of dinitrogen oxide (N2O) in urine as control to anesthetic exposure. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hoffmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Solna: National Institute of Occupational Health.

Pelikan, JM. 1993. Improving occupational health for health care workers within the health promoting hospital: Experiences from the Vienna WHO model project “health and hospital”. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Pérez, L, R De Andrés, K. Fitch, and R Najera. 1994. Seroconversiones a VIH tras Sanitarios en Europa. Presented at the 2nd Reunión Nacional sobre el SIDA Cáceres.

Philip, RN, KRT Reinhard, and DB Lackman. 1959. Observations on a mumps epidemic in a “virgin” population. Am J Hyg 69:91-111.

Pottier, M. 1992. Ergonomie à l’hôpital-hospital ergonomics. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Poulton, EC, GM Hunt, A Carpenter, and RS Edwards. 1978. The performance of junior hospital doctors following reduced sleep and long hours of work. Ergonomics 21:279-295.

Pöyhönen, T and M Jokinen. 1980. Stress and Other Occupational Health Problems Affecting Hospital Nurses. Vantaa, Finland: Tutkimuksia.

Raffray, M. 1994. Etude de la charge physique des AS par mesure de la fréquence cardiaque. Objectif soins 26:55-58.

Ramaciotti, D, S Blaire, A Bousquet, E Conne, V Gonik, E Ollagnier, C Zummermann, and L Zoganas. 1990. Processus de régulation des contraintes économiques physiologiques et sociales pour différents groupes de travail en horaires irréguliers et de nuit. Le travail humain 53(3):193-212.

Reuben, DB. 1985. Depressive symptoms in medical house officers: Effects of level of training and work rotation. Arch Intern Med 145:286-288.

Reznick, RK and JR Folse. 1987. Effect of sleep deprivation on the performance of surgical residents. Am J Surg 154:520-52.

Rhoads, JM.1977. Overwork. JAMA 237:2615-2618.

Rodary, C and A Gauvain-Piquard 1993. Stress et épuisement professionnel. Objectif soins 16:26-34.

Roquelaure, Y, A Pottier, and M Pottier. 1992. Approche ergonomique comparative de deux enregistreurs electroencéphalographiques. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Rosell, MG, P Luna, and X Guardino. 1989. Evaluacion y Control de Contaminantes QuPmicos en Hospitales. Technical Document No. 57. Barcelona: INSHT.

Rubin, R, P Orris, SL Lau, DO Hryhorczuk, S Furner, and R Letz. 1991. Neurobehavioral effects of the on-call experience in housestaff physicians. J Occup Med 33:13-18.

Saint-Arnaud, L, S Gingras, R Boulard., M Vezina and H Lee-Gosselin. 1992. Les symptômes psychologiques en milieu hospitalier. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Samkoff, JS, CHM Jacques. 1991. A review of studies concerning effects of sleep deprivation and fatigue on residents’ performance. Acad Med 66:687-693.

Sartori, M, G La Terra, M Aglietta, A Manzin, C Navino, and G Verzetti. 1993. Transmission of hepatitis C via blood splash into conjunctiva. Scand J Infect Dis 25:270-271.

Saurel, D. 1993. CHSCT Central, Enquete “Rachialgies” Résultats. Paris: Assistance Publique-Höpitaux de Paris, Direction du personnel et des relations sociales.

Saurel-Cubizolles, MJ, M Hay, and M Estryn-Béhar. 1994. Work in operating rooms and pregnancy outcome among nurses. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 66:235-241.

Saurel-Cubizolles, MJ, MKaminski, J Llhado-Arkhipoff, C Du Mazaubrum, M Estryn-Behar, C Berthier, M Mouchet, and C Kelfa. 1985. Pregnancy and its outcome among hospital personnel according to occupation and working condition. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 39:129-134.

Schröer, CAP, L De Witte, and H Philipsen. 1993. Effects of shift work on quality of sleep, health complaints and medical consumption of female nurses. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Senevirane, SR, De A and DN Fernando. 1994. Influence of work on pregnancy outcome. Int J Gynecol Obstet VOL: 35-40.

Shapiro, ET, H Pinsker and JH Shale. 1975. The mentally ill physician as practitioner. JAMA 232(7):725-727.

Shapiro, RA and T Berland. 1972. Noise in the operating room. New Engl J Med 287(24):1236-1238.

Shindo, E. 1992. The present condition of nursing ergonomics in Japan. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Siegel, A, M Michaelis, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and W Peinecke. 1993. Use and acceptance of lifting aids in hospitals and geriatric homes. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Smith, MJ, MJ Colligan, IJ Frocki, and DL Tasto. 1979. Occupational injury rates among nurses as a function of shift schedule. Journal of Safety Research 11(4):181-187.

Smith-Coggins, R, MR Rosekind, S Hurd, and KR Buccino. 1994. Relationship of day versus night sleep to physician performance and mood. Ann Emerg Med 24:928-934.

Snook, SH. 1988a. Approaches to the control of back pain in industry. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus.

—. 1988b. The costs of back pain in industry. In Back Pain in Workers, edited by RA Deyo. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus.

South, MA, JL Sever, and L Teratogen. 1985. Update: The congenital rubella syndrome. Teratology 31:297-392.

Spence, AA. 1987. Environmental pollution by inhalation anaesthetics. Br J Anaesth 59:96-103.

Stellman, JM. 1976. Women’s Work, Women’s Health: Myths and Realities. New York: Pantheon.

Steppacher, RC and JS Mausner. 1974. Suicide in male and female physicians. JAMA 228(3):323-328.

Sterling, DA. 1994. Overview of health and safety in the health care environment. In Essentials of Modern Hospital Safety, edited by W Charney. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.

Stoklov, M, P Trouiller, P Stieglitz, Y Lamalle, F Vincent, A Perdrix, C Marka, R de Gaudemaris, JM Mallion, and J Faure. 1983. L’exposition aux gaz anethésiques: Risques et prévention. Sem Hôs 58(29/39):2081-2087.

Storer, JS, HH Floyd, WL Gill, CW Giusti, and H Ginsberg. 1989. Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive ability and skills of pediatrics residents. Acad Med 64:29-32.

Stubbs, DA, PW Buckle, and PM Hudson. 1983. Back pain in the nursing profession; I Epidemiology and pilot methodology. Ergonomics 26:755-765.

Sundström-Frisk C and M Hellström.1995. The risk of making treatment errors, an occupational stressor. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Swann-D’Emilia, B, JCH Chu, and J Daywalt. 1990. Misadministration of prescribed radiation dose. Medical Dosimetry 15:185-191.

Sydow, B and F Hofmann. 1994. Unpublished results.

Tannenbaum, TN and RJ Goldberg. 1985. Exposure to anaesthetic gases and reproductive outcome: A review of epidemiologic literature. J Occup Med 27:659-671.

Teyssier-Cotte, C, M Rocher, and P Mereau. 1987. Les lits dans les établissements de soins. Documents pour le médecin du travail. INRS 29:27-34.

Theorell, T. 1989. The psychosocial working environment. In Occupational Hazards in the Health Professions, edited by DK Brune and C Edling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Theorell T. 1993. On the psychosocial environment in care. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech : Ecomed Verlag.

Tintori, R and M Estryn-Béhar. 1994. Communication: Où, quand, comment? Critères ergonomiques pour améliorer la communication dans les services de soins. Gestions Hospitalières 338:553-561.

Tintori, R, M Estryn-Behar, J De Fremont, T Besse, P Jacquenot, A Le Vot, and B Kapitaniak. 1994. Evaluation des lits à hauteur variable. Une démarche de recherche en soins infirmiers. Gestions Hospitalières 332:31-37.

Tokars, JI, R Marcus, DH Culver, CA Schable, PS McKibben, CL Bandea, and DM Bell. 1993. Surveillance of HIV infection and zidovudine use among health care workers after occupational exposure to HIV-infected blood. Ann Intern Med 118:913-919.

Toomingas, A. 1993. The health situation among Swedish health care workers. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Topf, M. 1992. Effects of personal control over hospital noise on sleep. Research in Nursing & Health 15(1):19-28.

Tornquist, A and P Ullmark. 1992. Corporate Space and Architecture, Actors and Procedures. Paris: Ministère de l’équipement du logement et des transports.

Townsend, M. 1994. Just a glove? Br J Theatre Nurs 4(5):7,9-10.

Tran, N, J Elias, T Rosenber, D Wylie, D Gaborieau, and A Yassi. 1994. Evaluation of waste anesthetic gases, monitoring strategies and corelations between nitrous oxide levels and health symptoms. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 55(1):36-42.

Turner, AG, CH King, and G Craddock. 1975. Measuring and reducing noise. Noise profile of hospital shows that even “quiet” areas are too noisy. Hospital JAHA 49:85-89.

US Preventive Services Task Force. 1989. Guide to Clinical Preventive Services: An Assessment of the Effectiveness of 169 interventions. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Vaillant, GE, NC Sorbowale, and C McArthur. 1972. Some psychologic vulnerabilities of physicians. New Engl J Med 287:372-375.

Vaisman, AI. 1967. Working conditions in surgery and their effects on the health of anesthesiologists. Eskp Khir Anesteziol 12:44-49.

Valentino, M, MA Pizzichini, F Monaco, and M Governa. 1994. Latex-induced asthma in four healthcare workers in a regional hospital. Occup Med (Oxf) 44(3):161-164.

Valko, RJ and PJ Clayton. 1975. Depression in the internships. Dis Nerv Syst 36:26-29.

Van Damme, P and GA Tormanns. 1993. European risk model. In Proceedings of the European Conference on Hepatitis B as an Occupatioonal Hazard. 10-12.

Van Damme, P, R Vranckx, A Safary, FE Andre, and A Mehevs. 1989. Protective efficacy of a recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid hepatitis B vaccine in institutionalized mentally handicapped clients. Am J Med 87(3A):265-295.

Van der Star, A and M Voogd. 1992. User participation in the design and evaluation of a new model hospital bed. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Van Deursen, CGL, CAM Mul, PGW Smulders and CR De Winter. 1993. Health and working situation of day nurses compared with a matched group of nurses on rotating shift work. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Van Hogdalem, H. 1990. Design guidelines for architects and users. In Building for People in Hospitals, Workers and Consumers. Luxembourg: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.

Van Wagoner, R and N Maguire. 1977. A study of hearing loss among employees in a large urban hospital. Canadian Journal of Public Health 68:511-512.

Verhaegen, P, R Cober, DE Smedt, J Dirkx, J Kerstens, D Ryvers, and P Van Daele. 1987. The adaptation of night nurses to different work schedules. Ergonomics 30(9):1301-1309.

Villeneuve, J. 1992. Une demarche d’ergonomie participative dans le secteur hôspitalier. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

—. 1994. PARC: Des fondations solides pour un projet de rénovation ou de construction Objectif prévention (Montreal) 17(5):14-16.

Wade, JG and WC Stevens. 1981. Isoflurane: An ansaesthetic for the eighties? Anesth Analg 60(9):666-682.

Wahlen, L. 1992. Noise in the intensive care setting. Canadian Critical Care Nursing Journal, 8/9(4/1):9-10.

Walz, T, G Askerooth, and M Lynch. 1983. The new upside-down welfare state. In Social Work in a Turbulent World, edited by M Dinerman. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.

Wands, SE and A Yassi. 1993. Modernization of a laundry processing plant: Is it really an improvement? Appl Ergon 24(6):387-396.

Weido, AJ and TC Sim. 1995. The burgeoning problem of latex sensitivity. Surgical gloves are only the beginning. Postgrad Med 98(3):173-174,179-182,184.

Wiesel, SW, HL Feffer, and RH Rothmann. 1985. Industrial Low Back Pain. Charlottesville,VA: Michie.

Wigaeus Hjelm, E, M Hagberg, and S Hellstrom. 1993. Prevention of musculoskeletal disorders in nursing aides by physical training. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Landsberg/Lech: Ecomed Verlag.

Wigand, R and Y Grenner. 1988. Personaluntersuchungen auf Immunität gegen Masern, Varizellen und Röteln, Saarländ. Ärztebl 41:479-480.

Wilkinson, RT, PD Tyler and CA Varey. 1975. Duty hours of young hospital doctors: Effects on the quality of work. J Occup Psychol 48:219-229.

Willet, KM. 1991. Noise-induced hearing loss in orthopaedic staff. J Bone Joint Surg 73:113-115.

Williams, M and JD Murphy. 1991. Noise in critical care units: A quality assurance approach. Journal of Nursing Care Quality 6(1):53-59.

World Health Organization (WHO). 1990. Guidelines on AIDS and First Aid in the Workplace. WHO AIDS Series No. 7. Geneva: WHO.

—. 1991. Biosafety Guidelines for Diagnostic and Research Laboratories Working with HIV. WHO AIDS Series No. 9. Geneva: WHO.

—. 1995. Weekly Epidemiological Report (13 January).

Wugofski, L. 1995. Occupational accident in health care workers—Epidemiology and prevention. In Occupational Health for Health Care Workers, edited by M Hagberg, F Hofmann, U Stössel, and G Westlander. Singapore: International Commission on Occupational Health.

Yassi, A. 1994. Assault and abuse of health care workers in a large teaching hospital. Can Med Assoc J 151(9):1273-1279.

Yassi, A and M McGill. 1991. Determinants of blood and body fluid exposure in a large teaching hospital: Hazards of the intermittent intravenous procedure. American Journal of Infection Control 19(3):129-135.

—. 1995. Efficacy and cost-effectiveness of a needleless intravenous access system. American Journal of Infection Control 22(2):57-64.

Yassi, A, J Gaborieau, J Elias, and D Willie. 1992. Identification and control of hazardous noise levels in a hospital complex. In Ergonomie à l’hôpital (Hospital Ergonomics), edited by M Estryn-Béhar, C Gadbois, and M Pottier. International Symposium Paris 1991. Toulouse: Editions Octares.

Yassi, A, D Gaborieau, I Gi