Checklists

Monday, 07 March 2011 19:04

Checklists

font size decrease font size increase font size
Print
Email

Rate this item

(1 Vote)

Work systems encompass such macro level organizational variables as the personnel subsystem, the technological subsystem and the external environment. The analysis of work systems is, therefore, essentially an effort to understand the allocation of functions between the worker and the technical outfit and the division of labour between people in a sociotechnical environment. Such an analysis can assist in making informed decisions to enhance systems safety, efficiency in work, technological development and the mental and physical well-being of workers.

Researchers examine work systems according to divergent approaches (mechanistic, biological, perceptual/motor, motivational) with corresponding individual and organizational outcomes (Campion and Thayer 1985). The selection of methods in work systems analysis is dictated by the specific approaches taken and the particular objective in view, the organizational context, the job and human characteristics, and the technological complexity of the system under study (Drury 1987). Checklists and questionnaires are the common means of assembling databases for organizational planners in prioritizing action plans in areas of personnel selection and placement, performance appraisal, safety and health management, worker-machine design and work design or redesign. Inventory methods of checklists, for example the Position Analysis Questionnaire, or PAQ (McCormick 1979), the Job Components Inventory (Banks and Miller 1984), the Job Diagnostic Survey (Hackman and Oldham 1975), and the Multi-method Job Design Questionnaire (Campion 1988) are the more popular instruments, and are directed to a variety of objectives.

The PAQ has six major divisions, comprising 189 behavioural items required for the assessment of job performance and seven supplementary items related to monetary compensation:

information input (where and how does one get information on the jobs to perform) (35 items)

mental process (information processing and decision-making in performing the job) (14 items)

work output (physical work done, tools and devices used) (50 items)

interpersonal relationships (36 items)

work situation and job context (physical/social contexts) (18 items)

other job characteristics (work schedules, job demands) (36 items).

The Job Components Inventory Mark II contains seven sections. The introductory section deals with the details of the organization, job descriptions and biographical details of the job holder. Other sections are as follows:

tools and equipment—uses of over 200 tools and equipment (26 items)

physical and perceptual requirements—strength, coordination, selective attention (23 items)

mathematical requirements—uses of numbers, trigonometry, practical applications, e.g., work with plans and drawings (127 items)

communication requirements—the preparation of letters, use of coding systems, interviewing people (19 items)

decision-making and responsibility—decisions about methods, order of work, standards and related issues (10 items)

job conditions and perceived job characteristics.

The profile methods have common elements, that is, (1) a comprehensive set of job factors used to select the range of work, (2) a rating scale that permits the evaluation of job demands, and (3) the weighing of job characteristics based on organizational structure and sociotechnical requirements. Les profils des postes, another task profile instrument, developed in the Renault Organization (RNUR 1976), contains a table of entries of variables representing working conditions, and provides respondents with a five-point scale on which they can select the value of a variable that ranges from very satisfactory to very poor by way of registering standardized responses. The variables cover (1) the design of the workstation, (2) the physical environment, (3) the physical load factors, (4) nervous tension, (5) job autonomy, (6) relations, (7) repetitiveness and (8) contents of work.

The AET (Ergonomic Job Analysis) (Rohmert and Landau 1985), was developed based on the stress-strain concept. Each of the 216 items of the AET are coded: one code defines the stressors, indicating whether a work element does or does not qualify as a stressor; other codes define the degree of stress associated with a job; and yet others describe the duration and frequency of stress during the work shift.

The AET consists of three parts:

Part A. The Man-at-Work system (143 items) includes the work objects, tools and equipment, and work environment constituting the physical, organizational, social and economic conditions of work.

Part B. The Task analysis (31 items) classified according to both the different kinds of work object, such as material and abstract objects, and worker-related tasks.

Part C. The Work Demand analysis (42 items) comprises the elements of perception, decision and response/activity. (The AET supplement, H-AET, covers body postures and movements in industrial assembling activities).

Broadly speaking, the checklists adopt one of two approaches, (1) the job-oriented approach (e.g., the AET, Les profils des postes) and (2) the worker-oriented approach (e.g., the PAQ). The task inventories and profiles offer subtle comparison of complex tasks and occupational profiling of jobs and determine the aspects of work which are considered a priori as inevitable factors in improving working conditions. The emphasis of the PAQ is on classifying job families or clusters (Fleishman and Quaintence 1984; Mossholder and Arvey 1984; Carter and Biersner 1987), inferring job component validity and job stress (Jeanneret 1980; Shaw and Riskind 1983). From the medical point of view, both the AET and the profile methods allow comparisons of constraints and aptitudes when required (Wagner 1985). The Nordic questionnaire is an illustrative presentation of ergonomic workplace analysis (Ahonen, Launis and Kuorinka 1989), which covers the following aspects:

work space

general physical activity

lifting activity

work postures and movements

accident risk

job content

job restrictiveness

worker’s communication and personal contacts

decision-making

repetitiveness of the work

attentiveness

lighting conditions

thermal environment

noise.

Among the shortcomings of the general-purpose checklist format employed in ergonomic job analysis are the following:

With some exceptions (e.g., the AET, and the Nordic questionnaire), there is a general lack of ergonomics norms and protocols of evaluation with respect to the different aspects of work and environment.

There are dissimilarities in the overall construction of the checklists as regards means of determining the characteristics of working conditions, the quotation form, criteria and methods of testing.

The evaluation of physical workload, work postures and work methods is limited on account of lack of precision in the analysis of work operations, with reference to the scale of relative levels of stress.

The principal criteria of assessment of the worker’s mental load are the degree of complexity of the task, the attention required by the task and the execution of mental skills. The existing checklists refer less to underuse of abstract thought mechanisms than to overuse of concrete thought mechanisms.

In most checklists, methods of analysis attach major importance to the job as a position as opposed to the analysis of work, worker-machine compatibility, and so forth. The psycho-sociological determinants, which are fundamentally subjective and contingent, are less emphasized in the ergonomics checklists.

A systematically constructed checklist obliges us to investigate the factors of work conditions which are visible or easy to modify, and permits us to engage in a social dialogue between employers, job holders and others concerned. One should exercise a degree of caution towards the illusion of simplicity and efficiency of the checklists, and towards their quantifying and technical approaches as well. Versatility in a checklist or questionnaire can be achieved by including specific modules to suit specific objectives. Therefore, the choice of variables is very much linked to the purpose for which the work systems are to be analysed and this determines the general approach for construction of a user-friendly checklist.

The suggested “Ergonomics Checklist” may be adopted for various applications. Data collection and computerized processing of the checklist data are relatively straightforward, by responding to the primary and secondary statements (q.v.).

ERGONOMICS CHECKLIST

A broad guideline for a modular-structured work systems checklist is suggested here, covering five major aspects (mechanistic, biological, perceptual/motor, technical and psychosocial). Weighting of the modules varies with the nature of the job(s) to be analysed, the specific features of the country or population under study, organizational priorities and the intended use of the results of the analysis. Respondents mark the “primary statement” as Yes/No. “Yes” answers indicate the apparent absence of a problem, although the advisability of further careful scrutiny should not be ruled out. “No” answers indicate a need for an ergonomics evaluation and improvement. Responses to “secondary statements” are indicated by a single digit on the severity of agreement/disagreement scale illustrated below.

0 Do not know or not applicable

1 Strongly disagree

2 Disagree

3 Neither agree nor disagree

4 Agree

5 Strongly agree

A. Organization, worker and the task Your answers/ratings

The checklist designer may provide a sample drawing/photograph of work and
workplace under study.

1. Description of organization and functions.

_______________________________________________________________

2. Worker characteristics: A brief account of the work group.

_______________________________________________________________

3. Task description: List activities and materials in use. Give some indication of
the work hazards.

_______________________________________________________________

B. Mechanistic aspect Your answers/ratings

I. Job Specialization

4.Tasks/work patterns are simple and uncomplicated. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

4.1 Job assignment is specific to the operative.

4.2 Tools and methods of work are specialized to the purpose of the job.

4.3 Production volume and quality of work.

4.4 Job holder performs multiple tasks.

II. Skill Requirement

5. Job requires simple motor act. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

5.1 Job requires knowledge and skilful ability.

5.2 Job demands training for skill acquisition.

5.3 Worker makes frequent mistakes at work.

5.4 Job demands frequent rotation, as directed.

5.5 Work operation is machine paced/assisted by automation.

Remarks and suggestions for improvement. Items 4 to 5.5:

_______________________________________________________________

q Analyst’s rating Worker’s rating q

C. Biological aspect Your answers/ratings

III. General Physical Activity

6. Physical activity is entirely determined and
regulated by the worker. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

6.1 Worker maintains target-oriented pace.

6.2 Job implies frequently repeated movements.

6.3 Cardiorespiratory demand of the job:

sedentary/light/moderate/heavy/ extremely heavy.

(What are the heavy work elements?):

_______________________________________________________________

(Enter 0-5)

6.4 Job demands high muscular strength exertion.

6.5 Job (operation of handle, steering wheel, pedal brake) is predominantly static work.

6.6. Job requires fixed working position (sitting or standing).

IV. Manual Materials Handling (MMH)

Nature of objects handled: animate/inanimate, size and shape.

_______________________________________________________________

7. Job requires minimal MMH activity. Yes/No

If No, specify the work:

7.1 Mode of work: (circle one)

pull/push/turn/lift/lower/carry

(Specify repetition cycle):

_______________________________________________________________

7.2 Load weight (kg): (circle one)

5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, >>40.

7.3 Subject-load horizontal distance (cm): (circle one)

<25, 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, >70.

7.4 Subject-load height: (circle one)

ground, knee, waist, chest, shoulder level.

(Enter 0-5)

7.5 Clothing restricts MMH tasks.

8. Task situation is free from risk of bodily injury. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

8.1 Task can be modified to reduce the load to be handled.

8.2 Materials can be packed in standard sizes.

8.3 Size/position of handles on objects may be improved.

8.4 Workers do not adopt safer methods of load handling.

8.5 Mechanical aids may reduce bodily strains.
List each item if hoists or other handling aids are available.

Suggestions for improvement, Items 6 to 8.5:

_______________________________________________________________

V. Workplace/Workspace Design

Workplace may be diagrammatically illustrated, showing human reach and
clearance:

9. Workplace is compatible with human dimensions. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

9.1 Work distance is away from normal reach in the horizontal or vertical plane (>60 cm).

9.2 Height of work desk/equipment is fixed or minimally adjustable.

9.3 No space for subsidiary operations (e.g., inspection and maintenance).

9.4 Workstations have obstacles, protruding parts or sharp edges.

9.5 Work surface floors are slippery, uneven, cluttered or unstable.

10. Seating arrangement is adequate (e.g., comfortable chair,
good postural support). Yes/No

If No, the causes are: (Enter 0-5)

10.1 Seat dimensions (e.g., seat height, back rest) mismatch with human dimensions.

10.2 Minimum adjustability of seat.

10.3 Workseat provides no hold/support (e.g., by means of vertical edges/extra stiff covering) to work with the machinery.

10.4 Absence of vibration damping mechanism in the workseat.

11. Sufficient auxiliary support is available for safety
at the workplace. Yes/No

If No, mention the following: (Enter 0-5)

11.1 Non-availability of storage space for tools, personal articles.

11.2 Doorways, entrance/exit routes, or corridors are restricted.

11.3 Design mismatch of handles, ladders, staircases, handrails.

11.4 Handholds and footholds demand awkward position of limbs.

11.5 Supports are unrecognizable by their place, form or construction.

11.6 Limited use of gloves/footwear to work and operate equipment controls.

Suggestions for improvement, Items 9 to 11.6:

_______________________________________________________________

VI. Work Posture

12. Job allows a relaxed work posture. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

12.1 Working with arms above shoulder and/or away from the body.

12.2 Hyperextension of wrist and demand of high strength.

12.3 Neck/shoulder are not maintained at an angle of about 15°.

12.4 Back bent and twisted.

12.5 Hips and legs are not well supported in seated position.

12.6 One-sided and unsymmetrical movement of the body.

12.7 Mention reasons of forced posture:
(1) machine location
(2) seat design,
(3) equipment handling,
(4) workplace/workspace

12.8 Specify OWAS code. (For a detailed description of the OWAS
method refer to Karhu et al. 1981.)

_______________________________________________________________

Suggestions for improvement, Items 12 to 12.7:

_______________________________________________________________

VII. Work Environment

(Give measurements where possible)

NOISE

[Identify noise sources, type and duration of exposure; refer to ILO 1984 code].

13. Noise level is below the maximum Yes/No
sound level recommended. (Use the following table.)

Rating	Work requiring no verbal communication	Work requiring verbal communication	Work requiring concentration
1	under 60 dBA	under 50 dBA	under 45 dBA
2	60-70 dBA	50-60 dBA	45-55 dBA
3	70-80 dBA	60-70 dBA	55-65 dBA
4	80-90 dBA	70-80 dBA	65-75 dBA
5	over 90 dBA	over 80 dBA	over 75 dBA

Source: Ahonen et al. 1989.

Give your agreement/disagreement score (0-5)

14. Damaging noises are suppressed at the source. Yes/No

If No, rate countermeasures: (Enter 0-5)

14.1 No effective sound isolation present.

14.2 Noise emergency measures are not taken (e.g., restriction of working time, use of personal ear defenders/protectors).

15. CLIMATE

Specify climatic condition.

Temperature ____

Humidity ____

Radiant Temperature ____

Draughts ____

16. Climate is comfortable. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

16.1 Temperature sensation (circle one):

cool/slightly cool/neutral/warm/very hot

16.2 Ventilation devices (e.g., fans, windows, air conditioners) are not adequate.

16.3 Non-execution of regulatory measures on exposure limits (if available, please elaborate).

16.4 Workers do not wear heat protective/assistive clothing.

16.5 Drinking fountains of cool water are not available nearby.

17. LIGHTING

Workplace/machine(s) are sufficiently illuminated at all times. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

17.1 Illumination is sufficiently intense.

17.2 Illumination of work area is adequately uniform.

17.3 Flicker phenomena are minimal or absent.

17.4 Shadow formation is nonproblematical.

17.5 Annoying reflected glares are minimal or absent.

17.6 Colour dynamics (visual accentuation, colour warmth) are adequate.

18. DUST, SMOKE, TOXICANTS

Environment is free from excessive dust,
fumes and toxic substances. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

18.1 Ineffective ventilation and exhaust systems to carry off fumes, smoke and dirt.

18.2 Lack of protection measures against emergency release and contact with dangerous/toxic substances.

List the chemical toxicants:

_______________________________________________________________

18.3 Monitoring of the workplace for chemical toxicants is not regular.

18.4 Non-availability of personal protective measures (e.g., gloves, shoes, mask, apron).

19. RADIATION

Workers are effectively protected against radiation exposure. Yes/No

If No, mention the exposures
(see ISSA checklist, Ergonomics): (Enter 0-5)

19.1 UV radiation (200 nm – 400 nm).

19.2 IR radiation (780 nm – 100 μm).

19.3 Radioactivity/x-ray radiation (<200 nm).

19.4 Microwaves (1 mm – 1 m).

19.5 Lasers (300 nm – 1.4 μm).

19.6 Others (mention):

_______________________________________________________________

20. VIBRATION

Machine can be operated without vibration transmission
to the operator’s body. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

20.1 Vibration is transmitted to the whole body via the feet.

20.2 Vibration transmission occurs through the seat (e.g., mobile machines that are driven with operator seated).

20.3 Vibration is transmitted through the hand-arm system (e.g., power-driven handtools, machines driven when operator is walking).

20.4 Prolonged exposure to continuous/repetitive source of vibration.

20.5 Vibration sources cannot be isolated or eliminated.

20.6 Identify the sources of vibration.

Comments and suggestions, items 13 to 20:

_______________________________________________________________

VIII. Work Time Schedule

Indicate work time: work hours/day/week/year, including seasonal work and shift system.

21. Pressure of work time is minimum. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

21.1 Job requires night work.

21.2 Job involves overtime/extra work time.

Specify average duration:

_______________________________________________________________

21.3 Heavy tasks are unevenly distributed throughout the shift.

21.4 People work at a predetermined pace/time limit.

21.5 Fatigue allowances/work-rest patterns are not sufficiently incorporated (use cardio- respiratory criteria on work severity).

Comments and suggestions, items 21 to 21.5:

_______________________________________________________________

Analyst’s rating Worker’s ratin

D. Perceptual/motor aspect Your answers/ratings

IX. Displays

22. Visual displays (gauges, meters, warning signals)
are easy to read. Yes/No

If No, rate the difficulties: (Enter 0-5)

22.1 Insufficient lighting (refer to item No. 17).

22.2 Awkward head/eye positioning for visual line.

22.3 Display style of numerals/numerical progression creates confusion and causes reading errors.

22.4 Digital displays are not available for accurate reading.

22.5 Large visual distance for reading precision.

22.6 Displayed information is not easily understood.

23. Emergency signals/impulses are easily recognizable. Yes/No

If No, assess the reasons:

23.1 Signals (visual/auditory) do not conform to the work process.

23.2 Flashing signals are out of visual field.

23.3 Auditory display signals are not audible.

24. Groupings of the display features are logical. Yes/No

If No, rate the following:

24.1 Displays are not distinguished by form, position, colour or tone.

24.2 Frequently used and critical displays are removed from the central line of vision.

X. Controls

25. Controls (e.g., switches, knobs, cranes, driving wheels, pedals) are easy to handle. Yes/No

If No, the causes are: (Enter 0-5)

25.1 Hand/foot control positions are awkward.

25.2 Handedness of the controls/tools is incorrect.

25.3 Dimensions of controls do not match the operating body part.

25.4 Controls require high actuating force.

25.5 Controls require high precision and speed.

25.6 Controls are not shape-coded for good grip.

25.7 Controls are not colour/symbol-coded for identification.

25.8 Controls cause unpleasant feeling (warmth, cold, vibration).

26. Displays and controls (combined) are compatible with easy and comfortable human reactions. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

26.1 Placements are not sufficiently close to each other.

26.2 Display/controls are not sequentially arranged for functions/frequency of use.

26.3 Display/control operations are successive, without enough time span to complete operation (this creates sensory overloading).

26.4 Disharmony in movement direction of display/control (e.g., leftward control movement does not give leftward unit movement).

Comments and suggestions, items 22 to 26.4:

_______________________________________________________________

Analyst’s rating Worker’s rating

E. Technical aspect Your answers/ratings

XI. Machinery

27. Machine (e.g., conveyer trolley, lifting truck, machine tool)
is easy to drive and work with. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

27.1 Machine is unstable in operation.

27.2 Poor maintenance of the machinery.

27.3 Driving speed of the machine cannot be regulated.

27.4 Steering wheels/handles are operated, from standing position.

27.5 Operating mechanisms hamper body movements in the workspace.

27.6 Risk of injury due to lack of machine guarding.

27.7 Machinery is not equipped with warning signals.

27.8 Machine is poorly equipped for vibration damping.

27.9 Machine noise levels are above legal limits (refer to items No. 13 and 14)

27.10 Poor visibility of machine parts and adjacent area (refer to items No. 17 and 22).

XII. Small Tools/Implements

28. Tools/implements provided to the operatives are
comfortable to work with. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

28.1 Tool/implement has no carrying strap/back frame.

28.2 Tool cannot be used with alternate hands.

28.3 Heavy weight of the tool causes hyperextension of the wrist.

28.4 Form and position of the handle are not designed for convenient grip.

28.5 Power-driven tool is not designed for two-hand operation.

28.6 Sharp edges/ridges of the tool/equipment can cause injury.

28.7 Harnesses (gloves, etc.) are not regularly used in operating vibrating tool.

28.8 Noise levels of power-driven tool are above acceptable limits
(refer to item No. 13).

Suggestions for improvement, items 27 to 28.8:

_______________________________________________________________

XIII. Work Safety

29. Machine safety measures are adequate to prevent
accidents and health hazards. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

29.1 Machine accessories cannot be fastened and removed easily.

29.2 Dangerous points, moving parts and electrical installations are not adequately guarded.

29.3 Direct/indirect contact of body parts with machinery can cause hazards.

29.4 Difficulty in inspection and maintenance of the machine.

29.5 No clear instructions available for machine operation, maintenance and safety.

Suggestions for improvement, items 29 to 29. 5:

_______________________________________________________________

Analyst’s rating Worker’s rating

F. Psychosocial aspect Your answers/ratings

XIV. Job Autonomy

30. Job allows autonomy (e.g., freedom regarding method of work,
performance conditions, time schedule, quality control). Yes/No

If No, the possible causes are: (Enter 0-5)

30.1 No discretion on the starting/finishing times of the job.

30.2 No organizational support as regards calling for assistance at work.

30.3 Insufficient number of people for the task (teamwork).

30.4 Rigidity in work methods and conditions.

XV. Job Feedback (Intrinsic and Extrinsic)

31. Job allows direct feedback of information as to the quality
and quantity of one’s performance. Yes/No

If No, the reasons are: (Enter 0-5)

31.1 No participative role in task information and decision making.

31.2 Constraints of social contact due to physical barriers.

31.3 Communication difficulty due to high noise level.

31.4 Increased attentional demand in machine pacing.

31.5 Other people (managers, co-workers) inform the worker as to his/her effectiveness of job performance.

XVI. Task Variety/Clarity

32. Job has a variety of tasks and calls for spontaneity on the part of the worker. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

32.1 Job roles and goals are ambiguous.

32.2 Job restrictiveness is imposed by a machine, process or work group.

32.3 Worker-machine relation arouses conflict as to behaviour to be evinced by operator.

32.4 Restricted level of stimulation (e.g., unchanging visual and auditory environment).

32.5 High level of boredom on the job.

32.6 Limited scope for job enlargement.

XVII. Task Identity/Significance

33. Worker is given a batch of tasks Yes/No
and arranges his or her own schedule to complete the work
(e.g., one plans and executes the job and inspects and
manages the products).

Give your agreement/disagreement score (0-5)

34. Job is significant in the organization. Yes/No
It provides acknowledgement and recognition from others.

(Give your agreement/disagreement score)

XVIII. Mental Overload/Underload

35. Job consists of tasks for which clear communication and
unambiguous information support systems are available. Yes/No

If No, rate the following: (Enter 0-5)

35.1 Information supplied in connection with the job is extensive.

35.2 Information handling under pressure is required (e.g., emergency manoeuvering in process control).

35.3 High information-handling workload (e.g., difficult positioning task—no special motivation required).

35.4 Occasional attention is directed to information other than that needed for the actual task.

35.5 Task consists of repetitive simple motor act, with superficial attention needed.

35.6 Tools/equipment are not pre-positioned to avoid mental delay.

35.7 Multiple choices are required in decision making and judging risks.

(Comments and suggestions, items 30 to 35.7)

_______________________________________________________________

XIX. Training and Promotion

36. Job has opportunities for associated growth in competence
and task accomplishment. Yes/No

If No, the possible causes are: (Enter 0-5)

36.1 No opportunity for advancement to higher levels.

36.2 No periodic training for operators, specific to jobs.

36.3 Training programs/tools are not easy to learn and use.

36.4 No incentive pay schemes.

XX. Organizational Commitment

37. Defined commitment towards organizational Yes/No
effectiveness, and physical, mental and social well-being.

Assess the degree to which the following are made available: (Enter 0-5)

37.1 Organizational role in individual role conflicts and ambiguities.

37.2 Medical/administrative services for preventive intervention in the case of work hazards.

37.3 Promotional measures to control absenteeism in work group.

37.4 Effective safety regulations.

37.5 Labour inspection and monitoring of better work practices.

37.6 Follow-up action for accident/injury management.

The Summary Evaluation Sheet may be used for profiling and clustering of a selected group of items, which may form the basis for decisions on work systems. The process of analysis is often time-consuming and the users of these instruments must have a sound training in ergonomics both theoretical and practical, in the evaluation of work systems.

SUMMARY EVALUATION SHEET

A. Brief Description of Organization, Worker Characteristics and Task Description

...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

			Severity Agreement
Modules	Sections	No. of rated Items	0	1	2	3	4	5	Relative Severity (%)	Item No(s). for Immediate Intervention
B. Mechanistic	I. Job Specialization II. Skill Requirement	4 5
C. Biological	III. General Physical Activity IV. Manual Materials Handling V. workplace/Workplace Design VI. Work Posture VII. Work Environment VIII. Work Time Schedule	5 6 15 6 28 5
D. Perceptual/motor	IX. Displays X. Controls	12 10
E. Technical	XI. Machinery XII. Small Tools/Implements XIII. Work Safety	10 8 5
F. Psychosocial	XIV. Job Autonomy XV. Job Feedback XVI. Task Variety/Clarity XVII. Task Identity/Significance XVIII. Mental Overload/Underload XIX. Training and Promotion XX. Organizational Commitment	5 5 6 2 7 4 6

Overall Assessment

Severity Agreement of the Modules		Remarks
A
B
C
D
E
F
		Work Analyst:

Back

Read 7042 times Last modified on Thursday, 13 October 2011 20:28

Published in Goals, Principles and Methods

More in this category: « Ergonomics and Standardization

" DISCLAIMER: The ILO does not take responsibility for content presented on this web portal that is presented in any language other than English, which is the language used for the initial production and peer-review of original content. Certain statistics have not been updated since the production of the 4th edition of the Encyclopaedia (1998)."

Ergonomics References

Abeysekera, JDA, H Shahnavaz, and LJ Chapman. 1990. Ergonomics in developing countries. In Advances in Industrial Ergonomics and Safety, edited by B Das. London: Taylor & Francis.

Ahonen, M, M Launis, and T Kuorinka. 1989. Ergonomic Workplace Analysis. Helsinki: Finnish Institute of Occupational Health.

Alvares, C. 1980. Homo Faber: Technology and Culture in India, China and the West from 1500 to Present Day. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

Amalberti, R. 1991. Savoir-faire de l’opérateur: aspects théoriques et pratiques en ergonomie. In Modèle en analyse du travail, edited by R Amalberti, M de Montmollin, and J Thereau. Liège: Mardaga.

Amalberti, R, M Bataille, G Deblon, A Guengant, JM Paquay, C Valot, and JP Menu. 1989. Développement d’aides intelligentes au pilotage: Formalisation psychologique et informatique d’un modèle de comportement du pologage de combat engagé en mission de pènètration. Paris: Rapport CERMA.

Åstrand, I. 1960. Aerobic work capacity in men and women with special reference to age. Acta Physiol Scand 49 Suppl. 169:1-92.

Bainbridge, L. 1981. Le contrôleur de processus. B Psychol XXXIV:813-832.

—. 1986. Asking questions and accessing knowledge. Future Comput Sys 1:143-149.

Baitsch, C. 1985. Kompetenzentwicklung und partizipative Arbeitsgestaltung. Bern: Huber.

Banks, MH and RL Miller. 1984. Reliability and convergent validity of the job component inventory. J Occup Psychol 57:181-184.

Baranson, J. 1969. Industrial Technology for Developing Economies. New York: Praeger.

Bartenwerfer, H. 1970. Psychische Beanspruchung und Erdmüdung. In Handbuch der Psychologie, edited by A Mayer and B Herwig. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

Bartlem, CS and E Locke. 1981. The Coch and French study: A critique and reinterpretation. Hum Relat 34:555-566.

Blumberg, M. 1988. Towards a new theory of job design. In Ergonomics of Hybrid Automated Systems, edited by W Karwowski, HR Parsaei, and MR Wilhelm. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Bourdon, F and A Weill Fassina. 1994. Réseau et processus de coopération dans la gestion du trafic ferroviaire. Travail Hum. Numéro spécial consacré au travail collectif.

Brehmer, B. 1990. Towards a taxonomy for microworlds. In Taxonomy for an Analysis of Work Domains. Proceedings of the First MOHAWC Workshop, edited by B Brehmer, M de Montmollin and J Leplat. Roskilde: Riso National Laboratory.

Brown DA and R Mitchell. 1986. The Pocket Ergonomist. Sydney: Group Occupational Health Centre.

Bruder. 1993. Entwicklung eines wissensbusierten Systems zur belastungsanalytisch unterscheidbaren Erholungszeit. Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag.

Caverni, JP. 1988. La verbalisation comme source d’observables pour l’étude du fonctionnnement cognitif. In Psychologie cognitive: Modèles et méthodes, edited by JP
Caverni, C Bastien, P Mendelson, and G Tiberghien. Grenoble: Presses Univ. de Grenoble.

Campion, MA. 1988. Interdisciplinary approaches to job design: A constructive replication with extensions. J Appl Psychol 73:467-481.

Campion, MA and PW Thayer. 1985. Development and field evaluation of an inter-disciplinary measure of job design. J Appl Psychol 70:29-43.

Carter, RC and RJ Biersner. 1987. Job requirements derived from the Position Analysis Questionnaire and validity using military aptitude test scores. J Occup Psychol 60:311-321.

Chaffin, DB. 1969. A computerized biomechanical model-development of and use in studying gross body actions. J Biomech 2:429-441.

Chaffin, DB and G Andersson. 1984. Occupational Biomechanics. New York: Wiley.

Chapanis, A. 1975. Ethnic Variables in Human Factors Engineering. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.

Coch, L and JRP French. 1948. Overcoming resistance to change. Hum Relat 1:512-532.

Corlett, EN and RP Bishop. 1976. A technique for assessing postural discomfort. Ergonomics 19:175-182.

Corlett, N. 1988. The investigation and evaluation of work and workplaces. Ergonomics 31:727-734.

Costa, G, G Cesana, K Kogi, and A Wedderburn. 1990. Shiftwork: health, sleep and performance. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

Cotton, JL, DA Vollrath, KL Froggatt, ML Lengnick-Hall, and KR Jennings. 1988. Employee participation: Diverse forms and different outcomes. Acad Manage Rev 13:8-22.

Cushman, WH and DJ Rosenberg. 1991. Human Factors in Product Design. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Dachler, HP and B Wilpert. 1978. Conceptual dimensions and boundaries of participation in organizations: A critical evaluation. Adm Sci Q 23:1-39.

Daftuar, CN. 1975. The role of human factors in underdeveloped countries, with special reference to India. In Ethnic Variable in Human Factor Engineering, edited by Chapanis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.

Das, B and RM Grady. 1983a. Industrial workplace layout design. An application of engineering anthropometry. Ergonomics 26:433-447.

—. 1983b. The normal working area in the horizontal plane. A comparative study between Farley’s and Squire’s concepts. Ergonomics 26:449-459.

Deci, EL. 1975. Intrinsic Motivation. New York: Plenum Press.

Decortis, F and PC Cacciabue. 1990. Modèlisation cognitive et analyse de l’activité. In Modèles et pratiques de l’analyse du travail, edited by R Amalberti, M Montmollin, and J Theureau. Brussels: Mardaga.

DeGreve, TB and MM Ayoub. 1987. A workplace design expert system. Int J Ind Erg 2:37-48.

De Keyser, V. 1986. De l’évolution des métiers. In Traité de psychologie du travail, edited by C Levy- Leboyer and JC Sperandio. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

—. 1992. Man within the Production Line. Proceedings of the Fourth Brite-EuRam Conference, 25-27 May, Séville, Spain. Brussels: EEC.

De Keyser, V and A Housiaux. 1989. The Nature of Human Expertise. Rapport Intermédiaire Politique Scientifique. Liège: Université de Liège.

De Keyser, V and AS Nyssen. 1993. Les erreurs humaines en anesthésie. Travail Hum 56:243-266.

De Lisi, PS. 1990. Lesson from the steel axe: Culture, technology and organizational change. Sloan Manage Rev 32:83-93.

Dillon, A. 1992. Reading from paper versus screen: A critical review of the empirical literature. Ergonomics 35:1297-1326.

Dinges, DF. 1992. Probing the limits of functional capacity: The effects of sleep loss on short-duration tasks. In Sleep, Arousal, and Performance, edited by RJ Broughton and RD Ogilvie. Boston: Birkhäuser.

Drury, CG. 1987. A biomechanical evaluation of the repetitive motion injury potential of industrial jobs. Sem Occup Med 2:41-49.

Edholm, OG. 1966. The assessment of habitual activity. In Physical Activity in Health and Disease, edited by K Evang and K Lange-Andersen. Oslo: Universitetterlaget.

Eilers, K, F Nachreiner, and K Hänicke. 1986. Entwicklung und Überprüfung einer Skala zur Erfassung subjektiv erlebter Anstrengung. Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft 40:215-224.

Elias, R. 1978. A medicobiological approach to workload. Note No. 1118-9178 in Cahiers De Notes Documentaires—Sécurité Et Hygiène Du Travail. Paris: INRS.

Elzinga, A and A Jamison. 1981. Cultural Components in the Scientific Attitude to Nature: Eastern and Western Mode. Discussion paper No. 146. Lund: Univ. of Lund, Research Policy Institute.

Emery, FE. 1959. Characteristics of Socio-Technical Systems. Document No. 527. London: Tavistock.

Empson, J. 1993. Sleep and Dreaming. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Ericson, KA and HA Simon. 1984. Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports As Data. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 1990. Ergonomic Principles of the Design of Work Systems. EEC Council Directive 90/269/EEC, The Minimum Health and Safety Requirements for the Manual Handling of Loads. Brussels: CEN.

—. 1991. CEN Catalogue 1991: Catalogue of European Standards. Brussels: CEN.

—. 1994. Safety of Machinery: Ergonomic Design Principles. Part 1: Terminology and General Principles. Brussels: CEN.

Fadier, E. 1990. Fiabilité humaine: méthodes d’analyse et domaines d’application. In Les facteurs humains de la fiabilité dans les systèmes complexes, edited by J Leplat and G De Terssac. Marseilles: Octares.

Falzon, P. 1991. Cooperative dialogues. In Distributed Decision Making. Cognitive Models for Cooperative Works, edited by J Rasmussen, B Brehmer, and J Leplat. Chichester: Wiley.

Faverge, JM. 1972. L’analyse du travail. In Traité de psychologie appliqueé, edited by M Reuchlin. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Fisher, S. 1986. Stress and Strategy. London: Erlbaum.

Flanagan, JL. 1954. The critical incident technique. Psychol Bull 51:327-358.

Fleishman, EA and MK Quaintance. 1984. Toxonomies of Human Performance: The Description of Human Tasks. New York: Academic Press.

Flügel, B, H Greil, and K Sommer. 1986. Anthropologischer Atlas. Grundlagen und Daten. Deutsche Demokratische Republik. Berlin: Verlag tribüne.

Folkard, S and T Akerstedt. 1992. A three-process model of the regulation of alertness sleepiness. In Sleep, Arousal and Performance, edited by RJ Broughton and BD Ogilvie. Boston: Birkhäuser.

Folkard, S and TH Monk. 1985. Hours of work: Temporal factors in work scheduling . Chichester: Wiley.

Folkard, S, TH Monk, and MC Lobban. 1978. Short and long-term adjustment of circadian rhythms in “permanent” night nurses. Ergonomics 21:785-799.

Folkard, S, P Totterdell, D Minors and J Waterhouse. 1993. Dissecting circadian performance rhythms: Implications for shiftwork. Ergonomics 36(1-3):283-88.

Fröberg, JE. 1985. Sleep deprivation and prolonged working hours. In Hours of Work: Temporal Factors in Work Scheduling, edited by S Folkard and TH Monk. Chichester: Wiley.

Fuglesang, A. 1982. About Understanding Ideas and Observations on Cross-Cultural
Communication. Uppsala: Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation.

Geertz, C. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.

Gilad, I. 1993. Methodology for functional ergonomic evaluation of repetitive operations. In Advances in Industrial Egonomics and Safety, edited by Nielsen and Jorgensen. London: Taylor & Francis.

Gilad, I and E Messer. 1992. Biomechanics considerations and ergonomic design in diamond polishing. In Advances in Industrial Ergonomics and Safety, edited by Kumar. London: Taylor & Francis.

Glenn, ES and CG Glenn. 1981. Man and Mankind: Conflict and Communication between Cultures. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Gopher, D and E Donchin. 1986. Workload—An examination of the concept. In Handbook of Perception and Human Performance, edited by K Boff, L Kaufman, and JP Thomas. New York: Wiley.

Gould, JD. 1988. How to design usable systems. In Handbook of Human Computer Interaction, edited by M Helander. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Gould, JD and C Lewis. 1985. Designing for usability: Key principles and what designers think. Commun ACM 28:300-311.

Gould, JD, SJ Boies, S Levy, JT Richards, and J Schoonard. 1987. The 1984 Olympic message system: A test of behavioral principles of the design. Commun ACM 30:758-769.

Gowler, D and K Legge. 1978. Participation in context: Towards a synthesis of the theory and practice of organizational change, part I. J Manage Stud 16:150-175.

Grady, JK and J de Vries. 1994. RAM: The Rehabilitation Technology Acceptance Model as a Base for an Integral Product Evaluation. Instituut voor Research, Ontwikkeling en Nascholing in de Gezondheidszorg (IRON) and University Twente, Department of Biomedical Engineering.

Grandjean, E. 1988. Fitting the Task to the Man. London: Taylor & Francis.

Grant, S and T Mayes. 1991. Cognitive task analysis? In Human-Computer Interactionand Complex Systems, edited by GS Weir and J Alty. London: Academic Press.

Greenbaum, J and M Kyng. 1991. Design At Work: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Greuter, MA and JA Algera. 1989. Criterion development and job analysis. In Assessment and Selection in Organizations, edited by P Herlot. Chichester: Wiley.

Grote, G. 1994. A participatory approach to the complementary design of highly automated work systems. In Human Factors in Organizational Design and Management, edited by G Bradley and HW Hendrick. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Guelaud, F, M-N Beauchesne, J Gautrat, and G Roustang. 1977. Pour une analyse des conditions du travail ouvrier dans l’entreprise. Paris: A. Colin.

Guillerm, R, E Radziszewski, and A Reinberg. 1975. Circadian rhythms of six healthy young men over a 4-week period with night-work every 48 h and a 2 per cent Co2 atmosphere. In Experimental Studies of Shiftwork, edited by P Colquhoun, S Folkard, P Knauth, and J Rutenfranz. Opladen: Westdeutscher Werlag.

Hacker, W. 1986. Arbeitspsychologie. In Schriften zur Arbeitpsychologie, edited by E Ulich. Bern: Huber.

Hacker, W and P Richter. 1994. Psychische Fehlbeanspruchung. Ermüdung, Monotonie, Sättigung, Stress. Heidelberg: Springer.

Hackman, JR and GR Oldham. 1975. Development of the job diagnostic survey. J Appl Psychol 60:159-170.

Hancock, PA and MH Chignell. 1986. Toward a Theory of Mental Work Load: Stress and Adaptability in Human-Machine Systems. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference On Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. New York: IEEE Society.

Hancock, PA and N Meshkati. 1988. Human Mental Workload. Amsterdam: North Holland.

Hanna, A (ed.). 1990. Annual Design Review ID. 37 (4).

Härmä, M. 1993. Individual differences in tolerance to shiftwork: a review. Ergonomics 36:101-109.

Hart, S and LE Staveland. 1988. Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical and theoretical research. In Human Mental Work Load, edited by PA Hancock and N Meshkati. Amsterdam: North Holland.

Hirschheim, R and HK Klein. 1989. Four paradigms of information systems development. Commun ACM 32:1199-1216.

Hoc, JM. 1989. Cognitive approaches to process control. In Advances in Cognitive Science, edited by G Tiberghein. Chichester: Horwood.

Hofstede, G. 1980. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Univ. Press.

—. 1983. The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories. J Int Stud :75-89.

Hornby, P and C Clegg. 1992. User participation in context: A case study in a UK bank. Behav Inf Technol 11:293-307.

Hosni, DE. 1988. The transfer of microelectronics technology to the third world. Tech Manage Pub TM 1:391-3997.

Hsu, S-H and Y Peng. 1993. Control/display relationship of the four-burner stove: A reexamination. Hum Factors 35:745-749.

International Labour Organization (ILO). 1990.The hours we work: new work schedules in policy and practice. Cond Wor Dig 9.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 1980. Draft Proposal for Core List of Anthropometric Measurements ISO/TC 159/SC 3 N 28 DP 7250. Geneva: ISO.

—. 1996. ISO/DIS 7250 Basic Human Body Measurements for Technological Design. Geneva: ISO.
Japan Industrial Design Promotion Organization (JIDPO). 1990. Good Design Products 1989. Tokyo: JIDPO.

Jastrzebowski, W. 1857. Rys ergonomiji czyli Nauki o Pracy, opartej naprawdach poczerpnietych z Nauki Przyrody. Przyoda i Przemysl 29:227-231.

Jeanneret, PR. 1980. Equitable job evaluation and classification with the Position Analysis Questionnaire. Compens Rev 1:32-42.

Jürgens, HW, IA Aune, and U Pieper. 1990. International data on anthropometry. Occupational Safety and Health Series. Geneva: ILO.

Kadefors, R. 1993. A model for assessment and design of workplaces for manual welding. In The Ergonomics of Manual Work, edited by WS Marras, W Karwowski, and L Pacholski. London: Taylor & Francis.

Kahneman, D. 1973. Attention and Effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Karhu, O, P Kansi, and I Kuorinka. 1977. Correcting working postures in industry: A practical method for analysis. Appl Ergon 8:199-201.

Karhu, O, R Harkonen, P Sorvali, and P Vepsalainen. 1981. Observing working postures in industry: Examples of OWAS application. Appl Ergon 12:13-17.

Kedia, BL and RS Bhagat. 1988. Cultural constraints on transfer of technology across nations: Implications for research in international and comparative management. Acad Manage Rev 13:559-571.

Keesing, RM. 1974. Theories of culture. Annu Rev Anthropol 3:73-79.

Kepenne, P. 1984. La charge de travail dans une unité de soins de médecine. Mémoire. Liège: Université de Liège.

Kerguelen, A. 1986. L’observation systématique en ergonomie: Élaboration d’un logiciel d’aide au recueil et à l’analyse des données. Diploma in Ergonomics Thesis, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, Paris.

Ketchum, L. 1984. Sociotechnical design in a third world country: The railway maintenance depot at Sennar in Sudan. Hum Relat 37:135-154.

Keyserling, WM. 1986. A computer-aided system to evaluate postural stress in the workplace. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 47:641-649.

Kingsley, PR. 1983. Technological development: Issues, roles and orientation for social psychology. In Social Psychology and Developing Countries, edited by Blacker. New York: Wiley.

Kinney, JS and BM Huey. 1990. Application Principles for Multicolored Displays. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Kivi, P and M Mattila. 1991. Analysis and improvement of work postures in building industry: Application of the computerized OWAS method. Appl Ergon 22:43-48.

Knauth, P, W Rohmert and J Rutenfranz. 1979. Systemic selection of shift plans for continuous production with the aid of work-physiological criteria. Appl Ergon 10(1):9-15.

Knauth, P. and J Rutenfranz. 1981. Duration of sleep related to the type of shift work, in Night and shiftwork: biological and social aspects , edited by A Reinberg, N Vieux, and P Andlauer. Oxford Pergamon Press.

Kogi, K. 1982. Sleep problems in night and shift work. II. Shiftwork: Its practice and improvement . J Hum Ergol:217-231.

—. 1981. Comparison of resting conditions between various shift rotation systems for industrial workers, in Night and shift work. Biological and social aspects , edited by A Reinberg, N Vieux, and P Andlauer. Oxford: Pergamon.

—. 1985. Introduction to the problems of shiftwork. In Hours of Work: Temporal Factors in Work-Scheduling, edited by S Folkard and TH Monk. Chichester: Wiley.

—. 1991. Job content and working time: The scope for joint change. Ergonomics 34:757-773.

Kogi, K and JE Thurman. 1993. Trends in approaches to night and shiftwork and new international standards. Ergonomics 36:3-13.

Köhler, C, M von Behr, H Hirsch-Kreinsen, B Lutz, C Nuber, and R Schultz-Wild. 1989. Alternativen der Gestaltung von Arbeits- und Personalstrukturen bei rechnerintegrierter Fertigung. In Strategische Optionen der Organisations- und Personalentwicklung bei CIM Forschungsbericht KfK-PFT 148, edited by Institut für Sozialwissenschaftliche Forschung. Karlsruhe: Projektträgerschaft Fertigungstechnik.

Koller, M. 1983. Health risks related to shift work. An example of time-contingent effects of long-term stress. Int Arch Occ Env Health 53:59-75.

Konz, S. 1990. Workstation organization and design. Ergonomics 32:795-811.

Kroeber, AL and C Kluckhohn. 1952. Culture, a critical review of concepts and definitions. In Papers of the Peabody Museum. Boston: Harvard Univ.

Kroemer, KHE. 1993. Operation of ternary chorded keys. Int J Hum Comput Interact 5:267-288.

—. 1994a. Locating the computer screen: How high, how far? Ergonomics in Design (January):40.

—. 1994b. Alternative keyboards. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Scientific Conference WWDU ‘94. Milan: Univ. of Milan.

—. 1995. Ergonomics. In Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, edited by BA Ploog. Chicago: National Safety Council.

Kroemer, KHE, HB Kroemer, and KE Kroemer-Elbert. 1994. Ergonomics: How to Design for Ease and Efficiency. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kwon, KS, SY Lee, and BH Ahn. 1993. An approach to fuzzy expert systems for product colour design. In The Ergonomics of Manual Work, edited by Maras, Karwowski, Smith, and Pacholski. London: Taylor & Francis.

Lacoste, M. 1983. Des situations de parole aux activités interprétives. Psychol Franç 28:231-238.

Landau, K and W Rohmert. 1981. AET-A New Job Analysis Method. Detroit, Mich.: AIIE Annual Conference.

Laurig, W. 1970. Elektromyographie als arbeitswissenschaftliche Untersuchungsmethode zur Beurteilung von statischer Muskelarbeit. Berlin: Beuth.

—. 1974. Beurteilung einseitig dynamischer Muskelarbeit. Berlin: Beuth.

—. 1981. Belastung, Beanspruchung und Erholungszeit bei energetisch-muskulärer Arbeit—Literaturexpertise. In Forschungsbericht Nr. 272 der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Unfallforschung Dortmund. Bremerhaven: Wirtschaftsverlag NW.

—. 1992. Grundzüge der Ergonomie. Erkenntnisse und Prinzipien. Berlin, Köln: Beuth Verlag.

Laurig, W and V Rombach. 1989. Expert systems in ergonomics: Requirements and an approach. Ergonomics 32:795-811.

Leach, ER. 1965. Culture and social cohesion: An anthropologist’s view. In Science and Culture, edited by Holten. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Leana, CR, EA Locke, and DM Schweiger. 1990. Fact and fiction in analyzing research on participative decision making: A critique of Cotton, Vollrath, Froggatt, Lengnick-Hall, and Jennings. Acad Manage Rev 15:137-146.

Lewin, K. 1951. Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper.

Liker, JK, M Nagamachi, and YR Lifshitz. 1988. A Comparitive Analysis of Participatory Programs in US and Japan Manufacturing Plants. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Univ. of Michigan, Center for Ergonomics, Industrial and Operational Engineering.

Lillrank, B and N Kano. 1989. Continuous Improvement: Quality Control Circles in Japanese Industries. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Univ. of Michigan, Center for Japanese Studies.

Locke, EA and DM Schweiger. 1979. Participation in decision making: One more look. In Research in Organizational Behavior, edited by BM Staw. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.

Louhevaara, V, T Hakola, and H Ollila. 1990. Physical work and strain involved in manual sorting of postal parcels. Ergonomics 33:1115-1130.

Luczak, H. 1982. Belastung, Beanspruchung und Erholungszeit bei informatorisch- mentaler Arbeit — Literaturexpertise. Forschungsbericht der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Unfallforschung Dortmund . Bremerhaven: Wirtschaftsverlag NW.

—. 1983. Ermüdung. In Praktische Arbeitsphysiologie, edited by W Rohmert and J Rutenfranz. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag.

—. 1993. Arbeitswissenschaft. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

Majchrzak, A. 1988. The Human Side of Factory Automation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Martin, T, J Kivinen, JE Rijnsdorp, MG Rodd, and WB Rouse. 1991. Appropriate automation-integrating technical, human, organization, economic and cultural factors. Automatica 27:901-917.

Matsumoto, K and M Harada. 1994. The effect of night-time naps on recovery from fatigue following night work. Ergonomics 37:899-907.

Matthews, R. 1982. Divergent conditions in the technological development of India and Japan. Lund Letters on Technology and Culture, No. 4. Lund: Univ. of Lund, Research Policy Institute.

McCormick, EJ. 1979. Job Analysis: Methods and Applications. New York: American Management Association.

McIntosh, DJ. 1994. Integration of VDUs into the US office work environment. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Scientific Conference WWDU ‘94. Milan: Univ. of Milan.

McWhinney. 1990. The Power of Myth in Planning and Organizational Change, 1989 IEEE Technics, Culture and Consequences. Torrence, Calif.: IEEE Los Angeles Council.

Meshkati, N. 1989. An etiological investigation of micro and macroergonomics factors in the Bhopal disaster: Lessons for industries of both industrialized and developing countries. Int J Ind Erg 4:161-175.

Minors, DS and JM Waterhouse. 1981. Anchor sleep as a synchronizer of rhythms on abnormal routines. Int J Chronobiology : 165-188.

Mital, A and W Karwowski. 1991. Advances in Human Factors/Ergonomics. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Monk, TH. 1991. Sleep, Sleepiness and Performance . Chichester: Wiley.

Moray, N, PM Sanderson, and K Vincente. 1989. Cognitive task analysis for a team in a complex work domain: A case study. Proceedings of the Second European Meeting On Cognitive Science Approaches to Process Control, Siena, Italy.

Morgan, CT, A Chapanis, JS III Cork, and MW Lund. 1963. Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Mossholder, KW and RD Arvey. 1984. Synthetic validity: A conceptual and comparative review. J Appl Psychol 69:322-333.

Mumford, E and Henshall. 1979. A Participative Approach to Computer Systems Design. London: Associated Business Press.

Nagamachi, M. 1992. Pleasantness and Kansei engineering. In Measurement Standards. Taejon, Korea: Korean Research Institute of Standards and Science Publishing.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 1981. Work Practices Guide for Manual Lifting. Cincinnati, Ohio: US Department of Health and Human Services.

—. 1990. OSHA Instruction CPL 2.85: Directorate of Compliance Programs: Appendix C, Guidelines Auggested By NIOSH for Videotape Evaluation of Work Station for Upper Extremities Cumulative Trauma Disorders. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services.

Navarro, C. 1990. Functional communication and problem-solving in a bus traffic-regulation task. Psychol Rep 67:403-409.

Negandhi, ART. 1975. Modern Organizational Behaviour. Kent: Kent Univ..

Nisbett, RE and TD De Camp Wilson. 1977. Telling more than we know. Psychol Rev 84:231-259.

Norman, DA. 1993. Things That Make Us Smart. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

Noro, K and AS Imada. 1991. Participatory Ergonomics. London: Taylor & Francis.

O’Donnell, RD and FT Eggemeier. 1986. Work load assessment methodology. In Handbook of Perception and Human Performance. Cognitive Processes and Performance, edited by K Boff, L Kaufman, and JP Thomas. New York: Wiley.

Pagels, HR. 1984. Computer culture: The scientific, intellectual and social impact of the computer. Ann NY Acad Sci :426.

Persson, J and Å Kilbom. 1983. VIRA—En Enkel Videofilmteknik För Registrering OchAnalys Av Arbetsställningar Och—Rörelser. Solna, Sweden: Undersökningsrapport,Arbetraskyddsstyrelsen.

Pham, DT and HH Onder. 1992. A knowledge-based system for optimizing workplace layouts using a genetic algorithm. Ergonomics 35:1479-1487.

Pheasant, S. 1986. Bodyspace, Anthropometry, Ergonomics and Design. London: Taylor & Francis.

Poole, CJM. 1993. Seamstress’ finger. Brit J Ind Med 50:668-669.

Putz-Anderson, V. 1988. Cumulative Trauma Disorders. A Manual for Musculoskeletal Diseases of the Upper Limbs. London: Taylor & Francis.

Rasmussen, J. 1983. Skills, rules, and knowledge: Sinds, signs, symbols and other distinctions in human performance models. IEEE T Syst Man Cyb 13:257-266.

—. 1986. A framework for cognitive task analysis in systems design. In Intelligent Decision Support in Process Environments, edited by E Hollnagel, G Mancini, and DD Woods. Berlin: Springer.

Rasmussen, J, A Pejtersen, and K Schmidts. 1990. In Taxonomy for Analysis of Work Domains. Proceedings of the First MOHAWC Workshop, edited by B Brehmer, M de Montmollin and J Leplat. Roskilde: Riso National Laboratory.

Reason, J. 1989. Human Error. Cambridge: CUP.

Rebiffé, R, O Zayana, and C Tarrière. 1969. Détermination des zones optimales pour l’emplacement des commandes manuelles dans l’espace de travail. Ergonomics 12:913-924.

Régie nationale des usines Renault (RNUR). 1976. Les profils de poste: Methode d’analyse des conditions de travail. Paris: Masson-Sirtes.

Rogalski, J. 1991. Distributed decision making in emergency management: Using a method as a framework for analysing cooperative work and as a decision aid. In Distributed Decision Making. Cognitive Models for Cooperative Work, edited by J Rasmussen, B Brehmer, and J Leplat. Chichester: Wiley.

Rohmert, W. 1962. Untersuchungen über Muskelermüdung und Arbeitsgestaltung. Bern: Beuth-Vertrieb.

—. 1973. Problems in determining rest allowances. Part I: Use of modern methods to evaluate stress and strain in static muscular work. Appl Ergon 4(2):91-95.

—. 1984. Das Belastungs-Beanspruchungs-Konzept. Z Arb wiss 38:193-200.

Rohmert, W and K Landau. 1985. A New Technique of Job Analysis. London: Taylor & Francis.

Rolland, C. 1986. Introduction à la conception des systèmes d’information et panorama des méthodes disponibles. Génie Logiciel 4:6-11.

Roth, EM and DD Woods. 1988. Aiding human performance. I. Cognitive analysis. Travail Hum 51:39-54.

Rudolph, E, E Schönfelder, and W Hacker. 1987. Tätigkeitsbewertungssystem für geistige arbeit mit und ohne Rechnerunterstützung (TBS-GA). Berlin: Psychodiagnostisches Zentrum der Humboldt-Universität.

Rutenfranz, J. 1982. Occupational health measures for night- and shiftworkers. II. Shiftwork: Its practice and improvement. J Hum Ergol:67-86.

Rutenfranz, J, J Ilmarinen, F Klimmer, and H Kylian. 1990. Work load and demanded physical performance capacity under different industrial working conditions. In Fitness for Aged, Disabled, and Industrial Workers, edited by M Kaneko. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics Books.

Rutenfranz, J, P Knauth, and D Angersbach. 1981. Shift work research issues. In Biological Rhythms, Sleep and Shift Work , edited by LC Johnson, DI Tepas, WP Colquhoun, and MJ Colligan. New York: Spectrum Publications Medical and Scientific Books.

Saito, Y. and K Matsumoto. 1988. Variations of physiological functions and psychological measures and their relationship on delayed shift of sleeping time. Jap J Ind Health 30:196-205.

Sakai, K, A Watanabe, N Onishi, H Shindo, K Kimotsuki, H Saito, and K Kogl. 1984. Conditions of night naps effective to facilitate recovery from night work fatigue. J Sci Lab 60: 451-478.

Savage, CM and D Appleton. 1988. CIM and Fifth Generation Management. Dearborn: CASA/SME Technical Council.

Savoyant, A and J Leplat. 1983. Statut et fonction des communications dans l’activité des équipes de travail. Psychol Franç 28:247-253.

Scarbrough, H and JM Corbett. 1992. Technology and Organization. London: Routledge.

Schmidtke, H. 1965. Die Ermüdung. Bern: Huber.

—. 1971. Untersuchungen über den Erholunggszeitbedarf bei verschiedenen Arten gewerblicher Tätigkeit. Berlin: Beuth-Vertrieb.

Sen, RN. 1984. Application of ergonomics to industrially developing countries. Ergonomics 27:1021-1032.

Sergean, R. 1971. Managing Shiftwork. London: Gower Press.

Sethi, AA, DHJ Caro, and RS Schuler. 1987. Strategic Management of Technostress in an Information Society. Lewiston: Hogrefe.

Shackel, B. 1986. Ergonomics in design for usability. In People and Computer: Design for Usability, edited by MD Harrison and AF Monk. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Shahnavaz, H. 1991. Transfer of Technology to Industrially Developing Countries and Human Factors Consideration TULEÅ 1991: 22, 23024. Luleå Univ., Luleå, Sweden: Center for Ergonomics of Developing Countries.

Shahnavaz, H, J Abeysekera, and A Johansson. 1993. Solving multi-factorial work-environment problems through participatory ergonomics: Case study: VDT operators. In Ergonomics of Manual Work, edited by E Williams, S Marrs, W Karwowski, JL Smith, and L Pacholski. London: Taylor & Francis.

Shaw, JB and JH Riskind. 1983. Predicting job stress using data from the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ). J Appl Psychol 68:253-261.

Shugaar, A. 1990. Ecodesign: New products for a greener culture. Int Herald Trib, 17.

Sinaiko, WH. 1975. Verbal factors in human engineering: Some cultural and psychological data. In Ethnic Variables in Human Factors Engineering, edited by A Chapanis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ..

Singleton, WT. 1982. The Body At Work. Cambridge: CUP.

Snyder, HL. 1985a. Image quality: Measures and visual performance. In Flat Panel Displays and CRTs, edited by LE Tannas. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

—. 1985b. The visual system: Capabilities and limitations. In Flat Panel Displays and CRTs, edited by LE Tannas. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Solomon, CM. 1989. The corporate response to work force diversity. Pers J 68:42-53.

Sparke, P. 1987. Modern Japanese Design. New York: EP Dutton.

Sperandio, JC. 1972. Charge de travail et régulation des processus opératoires. Travail Hum 35:85-98.

Sperling, L, S Dahlman, L Wikström, A Kilbom, and R Kadefors. 1993. A cube model for the classification of work with hand tools and the formulation of functional requirements. Appl Ergon 34:203-211.

Spinas, P. 1989. User oriented software development and dialogue design. In Work With Computers: Organizational, Management, Stress and Health Aspects, edited by MJ Smith and G Salvendy. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Staramler, JH. 1993. The Dictionary of Human Factors Ergonomics. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Strohm, O, JK Kuark, and A Schilling. 1993. Integrierte Produktion: Arbeitspsychologische Konzepte und empirische Befunde, Schriftenreihe Mensch, Technik, Organisation. In CIM—Herausforderung an Mensch, Technik, Organisation, edited by G Cyranek and E Ulich. Stuttgart, Zürich: Verlag der Fachvereine.

Strohm, O, P Troxler and E Ulich. 1994. Vorschlag für die Restrukturierung eines
Produktionsbetriebes. Zürich: Institut für Arbietspsychologie der ETH.

Sullivan, LP. 1986. Quality function deployment: A system to assure that customer needs drive the product design and production process. Quality Progr :39-50.

Sundin, A, J Laring, J Bäck, G Nengtsson, and R Kadefors. 1994. An Ambulatory Workplace for Manual Welding: Productivity through Ergonomics. Manuscript. Göteborg: Lindholmen Development.

Tardieu, H, D Nanci, and D Pascot. 1985. Conception d’un système d’information. Paris: Editions d’Organisation.

Teiger, C, A Laville, and J Durafourg. 1974. Taches répétitives sous contrainte de temps et charge de travail. Rapport no 39. Laboratoire de physiologie du travail et d’ergonomie du CNAM.

Torsvall, L, T Akerstedt, and M. Gillberg. 1981. Age, sleep and irregular workhours: a field study with EEG recording, catecholamine excretion and self-ratings. Scand J Wor Env Health 7:196-203.

Ulich, E. 1994. Arbeitspsychologie 3. Auflage. Zürich: Verlag der Fachvereine and Schäffer-Poeschel.

Ulich, E, M Rauterberg, T Moll, T Greutmann, and O Strohm. 1991. Task orientation and user-oriented dialogue design. In Int J Human-Computer Interaction 3:117-144.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 1992. Ergonomics Impact of Science on Society. Vol. 165. London: Taylor & Francis.

Van Daele, A. 1988. L’écran de visualisation ou la communication verbale? Analyse comparative de leur utilisation par des opérateurs de salle de contrôle en sidérurgie. Travail Hum 51(1):65-80.

—. 1992. La réduction de la complexité par les opérateurs dans le contrôle de processus continus. contribution à l’étude du contrôle par anticipation et de ses conditions de mise en œuvre. Liège: Université de Liège.

Van der Beek, AJ, LC Van Gaalen, and MHW Frings-Dresen. 1992. Working postures and activities of lorry drivers: A reliability study of on-site observation and recording on a pocket computer. Appl Ergon 23:331-336.

Vleeschdrager, E. 1986. Hardness 10: diamonds . Paris.

Volpert, W. 1987. Psychische Regulation von Arbeitstätigkeiten. In Arbeitspsychologie. Enzklopüdie der Psychologie, edited by U Kleinbeck and J Rutenfranz. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

Wagner, R. 1985. Job analysis at ARBED. Ergonomics 28:255-273.

Wagner, JA and RZ Gooding. 1987. Effects of societal trends on participation research. Adm Sci Q 32:241-262.

Wall, TD and JA Lischeron. 1977. Worker Participation: A Critique of the Literature and Some Fresh Evidence. London: McGraw-Hill.

Wang, WM-Y. 1992. Usability Evaluation for Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). Luleå, Sweden: Luleå Univ. of Technology.

Waters, TR, V Putz-Anderson, A Garg, and LJ Fine. 1993. Revised NIOSH equation for the design and evaluation of manual handling tasks. Ergonomics 36:749-776.

Wedderburn, A. 1991. Guidelines for shiftworkers. Bulletin of European Shiftwork Topics (BEST) No. 3. Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.

Welford, AT. 1986. Mental workload as a function of demand, capacity, strategy and skill. Ergonomics 21:151-176.

White, PA. 1988. Knowing more about what we tell: ‘Introspective access’ and causal report accuracy, 10 years later. Brit J Psychol 79:13-45.

Wickens, C. 1992. Engineering Psychology and Human Performance. New York: Harper Collins.

Wickens, CD and YY Yeh. 1983. The dissociation between subjective work load and performance: A multiple resources approach. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 27th Annual Meeting. Santa Monica, Calif.: Human Factors Society.

Wieland-Eckelmann, R. 1992. Kognition, Emotion und Psychische Beanspruchung. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

Wikström.L, S Byström, S Dahlman, C Fransson, R Kadefors, Å Kilbom, E Landervik, L Lieberg, L Sperling, and J Öster. 1991. Criterion for Selection and Development of Hand Tools. Stockholm: National Institute of Occupational Health.

Wilkinson, RT. 1964. Effects of up to 60 hours sleep deprivation on different types of work. Ergonomics 7:63-72.

Williams, R. 1976. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Glasgow: Fontana.

Wilpert, B. 1989. Mitbestimmung. In Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie. Internationales Handbuch in Schlüsselbegriffen, edited by S Greif, H Holling, and N Nicholson. Munich: Psychologie Verlags Union.

Wilson, JR. 1991. Participation: A framework and foundation for ergonomics. J Occup Psychol 64:67-80.

Wilson, JR and EN Corlett. 1990. Evaluation of Human Work: A Practical Ergonomics Methodology. London: Taylor & Francis.

Wisner, A. 1983. Ergonomics or anthropology: A limited or wide approach to working condition in technology transfer. In Proceedings of the First International Conference On Ergonomics of Developing Countries, edited by Shahnavaz and Babri. Luleå, Sweden: Luleå Univ. of Technology.

Womack, J, T Jones, and D Roos. 1990. The Machine That Changed the World. New York: Macmillan.

Woodson, WE, B Tillman, and P Tillman. 1991. Human Factors Design Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Zhang, YK and JS Tyler. 1990. The establishment of a modern telephone cable production facility in a developing country. A case study. In International Wire and Cable Symposium Proceedings. Illinois.

Zinchenko, V and V Munipov. 1989. Fundamentals of Ergonomics. Moscow: Progress.

Checklists

Contents

Ergonomics References